Climate and Water Monitoring at White Sands National Park: Water Year 2024
Kara Raymond, Susan Singley, Tani Hubbard
Please cite this publication as:
Raymond, K., S. Singley, and T. Hubbard. 2026. Climate and Water Monitoring at White Sands National Park: Water Year 2024. Science Report NPS/SR—2026/482. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado. https://doi.org/10.36967/2318804
Abstract
The Chihuahuan Desert Inventory and Monitoring Network monitors climate and two springs each year at White Sands National Park, New Mexico. We report on climate and water resources together because surface water conditions are closely related to climate conditions. Climate data, including temperature, precipitation, and reconnaissance drought index, are retrieved from The Climate Analyzer (climateanalyzer.org). We assess the condition of each spring, measure spring discharge and wetted extent (area that contained water), collect core water quality and water chemistry data, note the wetland plants and invasive plants and animals present, and sample for environmental DNA (eDNA) to inventory springs for rare species, invasive species, and pathogens. Each spring is somewhat unique, and New Mexico has not adopted water quality standards that apply across the diversity of springs in the state. Therefore, we continue to collect water quality data at the springs to form a baseline reference of natural variance. In water year (WY) 2024, rainfall was less than half the average for the park, though January was very wet. The drought index indicated the park was drier than average for the second year in a row. High and low temperatures were largely above average throughout the year. Conditions at EC-30 Spring and Garton Pond were similar to prior years. Both springs contained water when we visited in January 2024 and have had water year round for several years, but persistence data are missing for WY2024. Tamarisk, an invasive plant that grows in wetlands, continues to be present at both springs. We did not detect any of our eDNA target organisms at either spring in 2024.
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Overview
Together, climate and hydrology shape ecosystems and the services they provide, particularly in arid and semi-arid ecosystems. Understanding changes in climate and surface water is key to assessing the condition of park natural resources—and often, cultural resources.
At White Sands National Park (Figure 1), Chihuahuan Desert Inventory and Monitoring Network scientists study how ecosystems may be changing by taking measurements of key resources, or “vital signs,” year after year—much as a doctor keeps track of a patient’s vital signs. This long-term ecological monitoring provides early warning of potential resource problems, allowing managers to mitigate them before they become worse. At White Sands National Park, we monitor climate and springs, among other vital signs. Surface water conditions are closely related to climate conditions. Because they are better understood together, we report on climate in conjunction with water resources. Reporting is by water year (WY), which begins in October of the previous calendar year and goes through September of the water year (e.g., WY2024 runs from October 2023 through September 2024). This article reports the results of climate and springs monitoring at White Sands National Park in WY2024.
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Climate and Weather
There is often confusion over the terms “weather” and “climate.” In short, weather describes short-term meteorological conditions (e.g., it’s currently raining or snowing, it’s a hot or frigid day), and climate reflects patterns of weather at a given place over longer periods of time (seasons to years). Climate is the primary driver of ecological processes on Earth. Climate and weather information provide context for understanding the status or condition of other park resources.
Methods
A National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Cooperative Observer Program (NOAA COOP) weather station (White Sands Natl Mon #299686) has been operational at White Sands National Park since 1939 (Figure 1). This station typically provides a reliable climate dataset, but 38 days of data were missing in WY2024. As a substitute, climate analyses in this report use WY2024 and 30-year averages (1991–2020) of gridded surface meteorological (GRIDMET) data from the location of the station. Subsequent reports may revert to weather station data, depending on future data quality.
GRIDMET is a spatial climate dataset (4-kilometer resolution) that is interpolated using weather station data, topography, and other observational and modeled land surface data. Temperature and precipitation estimated from GRIDMET may vary from actual weather at a particular location depending on the availability of weather station data and the difference in elevation between the location of interest and that assigned to a grid cell. Data from both the weather station and GRIDMET are accessible through The Climate Analyzer.
Results
Precipitation and Air Temperature
Highlights: Annual rainfall was less than half the average, though January was very wet. The high and low temperatures were largely above average throughout the year.
Annual precipitation at White Sands National Park in WY2024 was 4.42″ (11.23 cm), 5.04″ (12.80 cm) less than the 1991–2020 annual average. Monthly precipitation totals were below average in every month except January, which was wetter than average (Figure 2). Precipitation totals in December and February were slightly below average; March, May, and September were completely dry; and there was very little precipitation in April. The largest monthly precipitation deficit relative to average occurred in September, which did not receive any rain—average rainfall for September is 1.41″ (3.58 cm). The other months had deficits of 0.06–0.85″ (0.15–2.16 cm). The mean annual maximum temperature in WY2024 was 79.4°F (26.3°C), 0.8°F (0.5°C) above the 1991–2020 average. The mean annual minimum temperature in WY2024 was 45.8°F (7.7°C), 2.5°F (1.4°C) above the 1991–2020 average. Mean monthly maximum and minimum temperatures in WY2024 differed by as much as 5.4°F (3.0°C) from the 1991–2020 monthly averages (Figure 2; see November as an example). Mean monthly maximum temperatures were warmer than average in every month except January, March, and April. Mean monthly minimum temperatures were warmer than average in every month except December.
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Drought
Highlight: The park was drier than average for the second year in a row.
Reconnaissance drought index (Tsakiris and Vangelis 2005) provides a measure of drought severity and extent relative to the long-term climate. It is based on the ratio of average precipitation to average potential evapotranspiration (the amount of water loss that would occur from evaporation and plant transpiration if the water supply was unlimited) over short periods of time (seasons to years). The reconnaissance drought index for White Sands National Park indicates that WY2024 was drier than average for the second consecutive year from the perspective of both precipitation and potential evapotranspiration (Figure 3).
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Springs
Background
Springs, seeps, and tinajas (discrete pools in a rock basin or impoundments in bedrock) are small, relatively rare biodiversity hotspots in arid lands. They are the primary connection between groundwater and surface water and are important water sources for plants and animals. For springs, the most important questions we ask are about persistence (How long was there water in the spring?) and water quantity (How much water was in the spring?). WY2024 springs sampling at White Sands National Park occurred on 24 January and 25 January 2024. Water persistence is monitored continuously throughout the water year, but in this report, we only present WY2024 persistence data up to the sampling visit date for each spring.
Methods
Chihuahuan Desert Network springs monitoring is organized into the four modules described below (see McIntyre et al. 2018 for additional details) and eDNA inventories. All data have undergone certification processes to ensure they have been verified and validated for accuracy, are complete, and are fully documented. Data used in this report are available to park staff on the NPS DataStore and can be provided upon request.
Site Characterization
This module provides context for interpreting change in the other modules. We record GPS locations, draw a site diagram, and describe the spring type (e.g., helocrene, limnocrene, rheocrene, or tinaja) and its associated vegetation in this module. Helocrene springs emerge as low-gradient wetlands, limnocrene springs emerge as pools, and rheocrene springs emerge as flowing streams. This module is completed once every five years or after significant events.
Site Condition
We estimate the level of natural and anthropogenic disturbances and the level of stress on vegetation and soils at the spring on a scale of 1–4, where 1 = undisturbed, 2 = slightly disturbed, 3 = moderately disturbed, and 4 = highly disturbed. Types of natural disturbances can include flooding, drying, fire, wildlife impacts, windthrow of trees and shrubs, beaver activity, and insect infestations. Anthropogenic disturbances can include roads, off-highway vehicle trails, hiking trails, livestock and feral-animal impacts, removal of invasive non-native plants, flow modification, and other evidence of human use of the spring site. We take repeat photographs from the same location and perspective to show the spring and its landscape context. We note the presence of certain obligate wetland plant species (plant species that almost always occur only in wetlands), facultative wetland plant species (plant species that usually occur in wetlands, but also occur in other habitats), and invasive non-native crayfish and American bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana). We also record the density of invasive non-native plants using a qualitative scale (1–5 plants, scattered patches, evenly distributed patches, or a matrix). We complete the site condition module during each springs monitoring visit.
Water Quantity
We measure the persistence of surface water, amount of spring discharge, and wetted extent (area that contained water). To estimate persistence, we analyze the variance of temperature measurements taken by two logging thermometers placed at or near the orifice (spring opening). Because water mediates variation in diurnal temperatures, data from a submerged sensor will show less daily variation than data from an exposed, open-air sensor; this tells us when the spring was wet or dry. Surface discharge is measured with a timed sample of water volume. Wetted extent is a systematic measurement of the physical length (up to 100 m), width, and depth of surface water. It is assessed using a technique for either standing water (e.g., limnocrene and helocrene springs) or flowing water (e.g., rheocrene springs). We complete discharge and wetted extent measurements during each visit when possible. Water persistence measurements are continuous throughout the year.
Water Quality
We measure core water quality and water chemistry parameters. Core water quality parameters include water temperature, pH, specific conductivity (a measure of dissolved compounds and contaminants), dissolved oxygen (how much oxygen is present in the water), and total dissolved solids (an indicator of potentially undesirable compounds). Discrete measurements of these parameters are collected with a multiparameter meter. If the meter fails calibration checks, we do not present data. Water chemistry is assessed by collecting surface water samples and estimating the concentration of major ions with a photometer in the field. These parameters are collected at one or more sampling locations within a spring, but we only present data for the primary sampling location. Each perennial spring is somewhat unique, and New Mexico has not adopted water quality standards that would apply across the diversity of springs described here. Ongoing, long-term data collection at each spring will improve our understanding of the natural range in water quality and water chemistry parameters for a given site. We complete the water quality module during each visit when possible.
eDNA Inventory of Rare and Invasive Species and Pathogens
We inventory rare species, invasive species, and pathogens in perennial springs using environmental DNA (eDNA) techniques. In 2023 and 2024, four or more water samples (250 mL/sample) were collected and filtered (0.45 µm) from each spring and then preserved in ethanol prior to DNA extraction and analysis by the Goldberg Lab at Washington State University. Our target organisms for the inventory include American bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana), Rio Grande leopard frog (Rana berlandieri), barred tiger salamander (Ambystoma mavortium), red spotted toad (Bufo punctatus), chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis), and ranavirus (Iridoviridae).
Results
EC-30 Spring
Highlights: The spring contained water and has been wet year round since April 2018, though persistence data are missing for WY2024. There was evidence of trampling by oryx at the site.
EC-30 Spring (Figures 4 and 5) cannot be characterized by a single spring type, so we categorize it as “other,” although it is closest to a helocrene spring (a spring that emerges into marshy, wet meadow settings—low-gradient wetlands) or a limnocrene spring (a spring that emerges as a pool). The spring is in a flat, open area near the northeast corner of White Sands National Park and emerges from multiple orifices across the landscape. These orifices form distinct potholes less than 30 cm in diameter and of varying depths (0.0–0.5 m). When the water table is high, the surrounding area is submerged under shallow, standing water, and when it is low, the potholes are the only wetted areas. The WY2024 visit occurred on 24 January 2024, and the spring contained water.
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Site Condition
In WY2024, we rated EC-30 Spring moderately disturbed by feral animals because of oryx (Oryx gazella) trampling, tracks, and scat (rated undisturbed to slightly disturbed in the past) and moderately disturbed by exotic plant removal based on evidence of past tamarisk (Tamarix sp.) treatment, such as visible stumps (rated slightly to highly disturbed in the past; Figure 6). No other natural or human-caused disturbances were observed at EC-30 Spring in WY2024.
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As in past years, we did not observe invasive non-native crayfish or American bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) at EC-30 Spring in WY2024. We observed one invasive non-native plant species at the spring: 1–5 tamarisk plants (Tamarix sp., 1–5 plants to scattered patches observed in 2017–2023). We observed one obligate/facultative wetland plant in WY2024: tamarisk (Tamarix sp., a tree/shrub observed in 2017–2023).
eDNA Inventory of Rare and Invasive Species and Pathogens
In WY2024, six water samples were collected from EC-30 Spring. Similar to WY2023, none of our target organisms were detected.
Water Quantity
Temperature sensor data are missing because of sensor failure, so there is no estimate of persistence for WY2024 (Figure 7). In prior water years, the spring was wetted (contained water) 52.6–100% of the days measured across entire years.
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As in past years, there was no measurable discharge because there was no measurable surface flow. Wetted extent was also not measured because our standard methods for standing water are not feasible at this site. We are exploring alternate methods to measure wetted extent at the site in the future.
Water Quality
Core water quality (Table 1) and water chemistry (Table 2) data were collected at the primary sampling location at orifice B in WY2024. The values of pH and water temperature were within the ranges recorded in prior years (2017–2023), while dissolved oxygen and specific conductivity were much higher. Total dissolved solids could not be measured in WY2024 as the values exceeded the range limit of the instrument. The values for alkalinity, chloride, magnesium, potassium, and sulphate were much higher than the ranges of prior measurements (2017–2023), while calcium was much lower.
| Sampling Location | Parameter | WY2024 Value (Range of Prior Values) |
Prior Years Measured (# of Measurements) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 002 | Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) | 9.74 (3.32–6.78) | 2017–2023 (9) |
| 002 | pH | 8.42 (7.55–8.54) | 2017–2022 (8) |
| 002 | Specific conductivity (µS/cm) | 7,757 (4,626–5,030) | 2017–2023 (9) |
| 002 | Temperature (°C) | 12.2 (10.9–16.2) | 2017–2023 (11) |
| 002 | Total dissolved solids (mg/L) | N/A (3,009.5–3,276.0) | 2017–2023 (9) |
| Sampling Location | Parameter | WY2024 Value (Range of Prior Values) |
Prior Years Measured (# of Measurements) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 002 | Alkalinity (CaCO3) | 100 (51–67) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| 002 | Calcium (Ca) | 400 (510–600) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| 002 | Chloride (Cl) | 910 (410–480) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| 002 | Magnesium (Mg) | 480 (180–270) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| 002 | Potassium (K) | 30 (14–15) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| 002 | Sulphate (SO4) | 3,200 (2,300–2,500) | 2017–2023 (6) |
Garton Pond
Highlights: The spring contained water and has been mostly wet year round since April 2019, though persistence data are missing for WY2024. The wetted area was similar to prior years.
Garton Pond (Figures 8 and 9) is a helocrene spring (a spring that emerges into marshy, wet meadow settings—low-gradient wetlands) that is about 20 m long, 5–10 m wide, and 0.2–0.8 m deep. A dense stand of bulrush (Schoenoplectus sp.) populates the pool. The WY2024 visit occurred on 25 January 2024, and the spring contained water.
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Site Condition
In WY2024, we rated the site moderately disturbed by exotic plant removal, as all tamarisk (Tamarix sp.) within the immediate spring system had been treated and were dead (rated slightly to moderately disturbed in the past; Figure 10). Animal tracks and scat indicated wildlife has been using the site. No other natural or human-caused disturbances were observed at Garton Pond in WY2024.
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As in past years, we did not observe invasive non-native crayfish or American bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) at Garton Pond in WY2024, nor did we observe any invasive non-native plants. We observed one obligate/facultative wetland plant species at Garton Pond in WY2024: bulrush (Schoenoplectus sp., a sedge observed in 2017–2023).
eDNA Inventory of Rare and Invasive Species and Pathogens
In WY2024, six water samples were collected from Garton Pond. Similar to WY2023, none of our target organisms were detected.
Water Quantity
Temperature sensor data are missing because of sensor failure, so there is no estimate of persistence for WY2024 (Figure 11). In prior water years, the spring was wetted (contained water) 42.5–100% of the days measured across entire years.
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As in past years, there was no measurable discharge because there was no measurable surface flow. Wetted extent was evaluated using a method for standing water. Overall, the pool was comparable to prior years in average length and depth but was slightly wider in WY2024. Width averaged 8.3 m (27.2 ft), length averaged 1.8 m (5.9 ft), and depth averaged 5.8 cm (2.3 in; Table 3).
| Measurement | WY2024 Mean (Range of Prior Means) |
Prior Years Measured (# of Visits with Measurements) |
|---|---|---|
| Width (m) | 8.3 ± 3.4 (0.9–7.7) | 2017–2023 (5) |
| Depth (cm) | 5.8 ± 3.8 (1.7–5.8) | 2017–2023 (5) |
| Length (m) | 17.7 ± 7.3 (1.4–19.5) | 2017–2023 (5) |
Water Quality
Core water quality (Table 4) and water chemistry (Table 5) data were collected at the primary sampling location in the deepest part of the pool in WY2024. Dissolved oxygen, pH, specific conductivity, and water temperature values were consistent with ranges of previous measurements (2018–2023). The total dissolved solids level was below the detection limit of the instrument. Alkalinity, magnesium, and potassium values were all within the ranges of prior years (2017–2023), while calcium, chloride, and sulphate were lower.
| Sampling Location | Parameter | WY2024 Value (Range of Prior Values) |
Prior Years Measured (# of Measurements) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 002 | Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) | 7.58 (4.00–8.30) | 2018–2023 (4) |
| 002 | pH | 7.20 (6.96–7.23) | 2018–2023 (4) |
| 002 | Specific conductivity (µS/cm) | 12,248 (12,219–12,730) | 2018–2023 (4) |
| 002 | Temperature (°C) | 8.8 (1.9–17.6) | 2018–2023 (5) |
| 002 | Total dissolved solids (mg/L) | b.d.l. (7,943–8,274) | 2018–2023 (4) |
| Sampling Location | Parameter | WY2024 Value (Range of Prior Values) |
Prior Years Measured (# of Measurements) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 002 | Alkalinity (CaCO3) | 98 (90–100) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| 002 | Calcium (Ca) | 620 (640–710) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| 002 | Chloride (Cl) | 2,500 (2,800–3,000) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| 002 | Magnesium (Mg) | 170 (170–200) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| 002 | Potassium (K) | 36 (15–42) | 2017–2023 (6) |
| 002 | Sulphate (SO4) | 2,800 (3,100–3,400) | 2017–2023 (6) |
Past Reports
Previous annual reports can be found at the following links:
Literature Cited
McIntyre, C., K. Gallo, E. Gwilliam, J.A. Hubbard, J. Christian, K. Bonebrake, G. Goodrum, M. Podolinsky, L. Palacios, et al. 2018. Springs, seeps, and tinajas monitoring protocol: Chihuahuan and Sonoran Desert Networks. Natural Resource Report. NPS/CHDN/NRR—2018/1796. National Park Service. Fort Collins, Colorado.https://irma.nps.gov/DataStore/Reference/Profile/2257245
Tsakiris, G., and H. Vangelis. 2005. Establishing a drought index incorporating evapotranspiration. European Water 9: 3–11.
Author Information
Kara Raymond 1 
https://orcid.org/0009-0004-7265-5919
Susan Singley 2
Tani Hubbard 3 https://orcid.org/0009-0009-8777-4773
1
National Park Service
Southern Arizona Office
12661 E. Broadway Blvd.
Tucson, AZ 85748
2
National Park Service
Chihuahuan Desert Network
New Mexico State University
MSC 3ARP, 3655 Research Dr.
Genesis Building D
Las Cruces, NM 88003
3
Northern Rockies Conservation Cooperative and National Park
Service
12661 E. Broadway Blvd.
Tucson, AZ 85748
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