NOTES

1. Robert Webb, "Storm over Manassas: A Plan to Develop Part of Virginia's Famed Civil War Battlefield Is Provoking the Greatest Preservation Battle in Years," Historic Preservation 40 (July/August 1988): 40-45; Jody Powell, "Battling over Manassas," National Parks 62 (July/August 1988): 12-13; George F. Will, "Where Men Fought and Fell," Newsweek, 18 July 1988, 68; "Hallowed Ground," The Economist, 20 August 1988, 25-26.

2. "Civil War Sites Face Grave Threats," National Parks 67 (November/December 1993): 11.

3. Civil War Sites Advisory Commission, Report on the Nation's Civil War Battlefields (Washington, D.C.: National Park Service, 1993), 3, 28-31.

4. During the Civil War, the officers from the opposing sides sometimes chose different map features to name battles. In the case of Manassas, Federals named the two battles after the nearby Bull Run, while Confederates used Manassas Junction, the rail center that eventually developed into the town of Manassas, for the name.

5. Robert E. L. Krick, "The Civil War's First Monument," Blue & Gray, April 1991, 32-33; Ronald F. Lee, The Origin and Evolution of the National Military Park Idea (Washington, D.C.: National Park Service, 1973), 16.

6. Lee, Origin of the Military Park Idea, 6; Richard West Sellars, "Vigil of Silence: The Civil War Memorials," History News, July/August 1986, 19-23.

7. Lee, Origin of the Military Park Idea, 6; Edward Tabor Linenthal, Sacred Ground: Americans and their Battlefields Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991), 94. Michael Kammen notes that beneath the promising signs of reconciliation and nationalism were feelings of hatred and vindictiveness between the North and the South, indicating the need for more healing. See Michael Kammen Mystic Chords of Memory: The Transformation of Tradition in American Culture New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991), 106-15.

8. Lee, Origin of the Military Park Idea, 6; Linenthal, Sacred Ground, 104, 106; Mike O'Donnell, At Manassas: Reunions, Reenactments, Maneuvers (Mechanicsville, Va.: Rapidan Press, 1986).

9. Robert M. Utley, "A Preservation Ideal," Historic Preservation 28 (April/June 1976); Ary J. Lamme III, America's Historic Landscapes: Community Power and the Preservation of Four National Historic Sites (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1989), 179; Reuben M. Rainey, "The Memory of War: Reflections on Battlefield Preservation," in The Yearbook of Landscape Architecture: Historic Preservation, ed. Richard L. Austin et al. (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, n.d.), 78; Linenthal, Sacred Ground, 115, 216; Georgie Boge and Margie Holder Boge, Paving Over the Past: A History and Guide to Civil War Battlefield Preservation (Washington, D.C., 1993), xvii, 7; Thomas A. Lewis, "Fighting for the Past," Audubon, September 1989, 58.

10. Jane Brown Gillette, "Fields Forgotten," Historic Preservation 45 (July/August 1993): 86.

11. Jerry L. Russell, interview by author, 27 July 1994, transcript, 17-18, NPS.

12. Gillette, "Fields Forgotten," 86.

1. For a concise but detailed discussion of the establishment of the first battlefield parks, see Lee, Origin of the Military Park Idea.

2. House, Protection of Monuments on Battle Field of Bull Run, 63rd Cong., 2d sess., 1913, H. Doc. 481, 16-19; Frank B. Sarles Jr., "A Short History of Manassas National Battlefield Park," June 1955, 5-7, 10, Library Collection, Manassas National Battlefield Park (MNBP); Krick, "Civil War's First Monument." Measurements of the Bull Run and Groveton monuments provided by the Park Service.

3. Sarles, 'Short History," 6-7; Lee, Origin of the Military Park Idea, 17-18; Kammen, Mystic Chords of Memory, 115-18.

4. Sarles, "Short History," 6-7; "Bull Run Monuments Unveiled by Veterans," 20 October 1906, newspaper article; "Three Monuments Dedicated on Historic Battlefield of Bull Run," 21 October 1906, newspaper article; James B. Meyers, "Report on Lands Surrounding the New York Monuments Near Manassas National Battlefield Park," June-September 1950, last three documents in file Monuments and Markers, N.Y. Monuments and Land Acquisition, Historian's Files, MNBP.

5. "Bull Run Monuments Unveiled"; "Three Monuments Dedicated."

6. Charles F. Walcott, "A Revisit to the Fields of Manassas and Chantilly," in The Virginia Campaign of 1862 Under General Pope, ed. Theodore Dwight (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1895), 173-77; H. F. Henry, Souvenir Booklet of the Battlefield of Bull Run Battles of July 21, 1861 and August 28, 29, and 30, 1862 (Manassas, Va.: Manassas Journal Press, 1900), file Battlefield Guides, MNBP; Visitor Register, 1918-40 Museum Collection, MNBP.

7. Lee, Origin of the Military Park Idea, 38.

8. George Carr Round, "The Last Signal Message of the War," 1902; "George Carr Round, Father of the Public School System of Prince William County," n.d.; and Rita G. Koman, "George Carr Round 1839-1918," 21 May 1976, all in G. C. Round Papers, GC Round File no. 1, Manassas Museum; Clint Schemmer, "Documents Reveal Background of Illustrious Manassas Leader," Potomac News (Woodbridge), 10 August 1988.

9. George Carr Round, "Union Soldier Concerning the Lee Statue," Confederate Veteran, November 1910, 529; "George Carr Round, Father of the Public School System"; Koman, "George Carr Round."

10. Ralph K. T. Larson, "The New Battle of Manassas, Washington Post, 12 May 1979; House, Protection of Monuments, 6; O'Donnell, At Manassas, 16; Linenthal, Sacred Ground, 94

11. O'Donnell, At Manassas, 16-17; George Carr Round, "The Manassas Jubilee: Aftermath," 7 August 1911, MANA 1250, Museum Collection, MNBP; Koman, "George Carr Round."

12. Round, Manassas Jubilee"; O'Donnell, At Manassas, 16; Linenthal, Sacred Ground, 95.

13. House, Protection of Monuments, 28-29, 33, 38-39, 40; A Bill to Protect the Monuments Already Erected on the Battlefields of Bull Run, Virginia, 56th Cong., 1st sess., 1901, H.R. 277; Biographical Directory of the United States Congress 1774-1989 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1989), 1722.

14. Lee, Origin of the Military Park Idea, 39-40.

15. Ibid., 38-40.

16. H.R. 277; House, Protection of Monuments, 33; Lee, Origin of the Military Park Idea, 41.

17. House, Protection of Monuments, 28-29, 33, 37. Round accompanied General Davis on two occasions in the 1890s when the general surveyed the Manassas battlefields.

18. A Bill to Establish Battle Park on Bull Run, 56th Cong., 1st sess., 1900, H.R. 7837; Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, 1774-1989 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1989), 1597; George Carr Round, "Is the United States Too Poor to Own Its Own Monuments?," 1917, file 1865 Bull Run Monuments, Historian's Files, MNBP; House, Protection of Monuments, 28.

19. Lee, Origin of the Military Park Idea, 44-45; House, Protection of Monuments, 34

20. House, Protection of Monuments, 15.

21. Ibid.; A Bill to Protect the Monuments Already Erected on the Battlefields of Bull Run, Virginia, 58th Cong., 1st sess, 1903, H.R. 1964. Round does not divulge why the Department of Pennsylvania first fought the Manassas resolution.

22. House, Protection of Monuments, 13-16.

23. Biographical Directory of Congress, 743; A Bill to Protect the Monuments Already Erected on the Battlefields of Bull Run, Virginia, and Other Monuments That May Be Thee Erected, 62d Cong., 1st sess., 1912, H.R. 1330.

24. House, Protection of Monuments, 30-37.

25. House, Protection of Monuments, 1, 32-37. During the 1912 hearings, Round readily disclosed his role as legal representative of the Henry family heirs, which began that year. He also represented Lucinda Dogan. See Round, "Is the United States Too Poor?"

26. House, Protection of Monuments, 1 - 12.

27. House, Protection of Monuments, 1-6; Sarles, "Short History," 12.

28. Round, "Is the United States Too Poor?"

1. Michael Kammen describes more fully this American enchantment with history in part 3 of his book, Mystic Chords of Memory.

2. Unfortunately, none of the sources reveal Ewing's first name. George Carr Round contributed an article to the Confederate Veteran on Manassas park efforts in 1917, which may have influenced Ewing's pursuit of the Confederate park in 1920. E. W. R. Ewing, "The Manassas Battlefield Confederate Park," 1927, 7, MANA 1911, accession (acc.) 52, Museum Collection, MNBP; E. W. R. Ewing, "The Manassas Battlefield Confederate Park Prospectus," rev. ed., 1921, 6, Virginiana Room, Bull Run Library, Manassas, Va.; Confederate Veteran, October 1920, 397; Sarles, "Short History," 13.

3. Ewing, Manassas Park Prospectus," 4-8, 12, 15-16.

4. Ewing, Manassas Battlefield Confederate Park," 9; Ewing, Manassas Park Prospectus," 8; J. Roy Price to John Jones, 29 July 1929, 2, file Confederate Park Files, Historian's Files, MNBP.

5. J. Roy Price to John Jones, 29 July 1929, 2; Ewing, Manassas Battlefield Confederate Park," 8-9.

6. With interest, Virginia eventually appropriated $12,800 toward the Confederate park; see Edmund Wiles to Horace Albright, 23 June 1933, file Correspondence 6/1/33-6/30/37, box 2596A, entry 7, record group (RG) 79, National Archives and Records Administrations (NARA). Ewing, Manassas Battlefield Confederate Park," 9-12; "Manassas Battle Field Confederate Park," Confederate Veteran, October 1929, 236; Manassas Battle Field Memorial," Confederate Veteran, May 1923, 197.

7. Ewing, Manassas Battlefield Confederate Park," 9; Virginia Division, Sons of Confederate Veterans, resolution no. 4, October 1935, Roanoke, Va., 15-17, file Correspondence 6/1/33-6/30/37, box 2596A, entry 7, RG 79, NARA. The Virginia Division of the Sons of Confederate Veterans unanimously adopted resolution no. 4 at their fortieth annual convention. "Funds to Clear Manassas Battle Field," Confederate Veteran, July 1929, 277.

8. Sarles, "Short History," 14; Edmond Wiles to Horace Albright, 23 June 1933, Albright to Wiles, 26 June 1933, and Wiles to Albright, 11 July 1933, all in file Correspondence 6/1/33- 6/30/37, box 2596A, entry 7, RG 79, NARA.

9. Lee, Origin of the Military Park Idea, 47-48.

10. Ibid., 48-49.

11. Ibid., 50, 52; Study of Battle Fields in the United States for Commemorative Purposes, 70th Cong., 2d sess., 1928. S. Doc. 187, 3-4; Study of Battlefields in the United States for Commemorative Purposes, 2d Cong., 1st sess., 1931, S. Doc. 27, 3, 5-6.

12. Horace M. Albright, Origins of National Park Service Administration of Historic Sites (Philadelphia: Eastern National Park and Monument Association, 1971), 18-22. The story of Albright's fortuitous ride with Roosevelt is also recounted in Albright, as told to Robert Cahn, The Birth of the National Park Service: The Founding Years, 1913-33 (Salt Lake City: Howe Brothers, 1985), 291-97, and in Donald C. Swain, Wilderness Defender: Horace M. Albright and Conservation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970), 224-28.

13. National Park Service, "Administration Manual for Recreational Demonstration Areas," 1938, 3-4, box CCC-2, box code A98, NPS History Collection, Harpers Ferry Center (HFC); National Park Service, 1940 Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior, 202, NPS History Collection, HFC; Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Public Papers and Addresses (New York: Random House, 1938), 146-47. The Resettlement Administration was an agency under the Department of Agriculture.

14. National Park Service, Resettlement Administration, and Civilian Conservation Corps, Recreational Demonstration Projects: As Illustrated by Chopawamsic, Virginia, n.d., 2-3,6, box CCC- 2, box code A98, NPS History Collection, HFC; Roosevelt, Public Papers, 146-47.

15. Arno B. Cammerer to Conrad Wirth, 1 March 1935, file Correspondence 6/1/33-6/30/37, box 2596A, entry 7, RG 79, NARA; Howard W. Smith to Wirth, 3 June 1935, 1, attached to "Bull Run Battlefield Recreational Demonstration Project: Summary of Final Project Report" (hereafter cited as "Final Project Report") 1936, file Park Boundary Study Land Acquisition 1937, Historian's Files, MNBP; Bruce J. Dierenfield, Keeper of the Rules: Congressman Howard W Smith of Virginia (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1987), 52-54, 74-75. Conrad Wirth wrote Smith in July 1935 saying that the Park Service is "assiduously working to present a Project Plan which can qualify for an allotment of funds under the Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935"--the same act that Smith had opposed. Wirth to Smith, [26?] July 1935, file Correspondence 6/1/33-6/30/37, box 2596A, entry 7, RG 79, NARA.

16. National Park Service, "Administration Manual," 6.

17. The sources do not indicate why the federal government chose "Bull Run" as the name for the recreational demonstration area, but the Northern designation probably seemed more appropriate to the New Yorker Roosevelt and his administration. My discussion of the recreation demonstration area depends on a limited array of planning documents and some correspondence. Unfortunately, the RG 96 field office files, which include case files for land acquisition and the records for resettlement projects for Prince William County, have been destroyed. These documents were under the custodianship of the National Archives and were transferred to the Mid-Atlantic Regional Archives in Philadelphia. "Justification," file 130 Appropriations Estimates, box 130, entry 130, RG 79, NARA; "Final Project Report," 1-2, 6-8, table; Joseph Mills Hanson, "A Report on Proposed Boundaries and Areas for a Manassas National Battlefield Park, Virginia," 10 November 1937, file Manassas Boundary Study, box MANA Retained Info, NPS History Division Archives.

18. National Park Service, Manassas to Appomattox: National Battlefield Parks Tour in Virginia (Washington, D.C., 1939), Department of the Interior Library.

19. J. D. Coffman to Director, 4 April 1936; John Shanklin, "Report of the Chief Forester on Bull Run Battlefield," 2 April 1936; Howard W. Smith to Carter Glass, 5 June 1935; Joseph Mills Hanson to Branch Spalding, 14 January 1937, all in file Correspondence 6/1/33-6/30/37, box 2596A, entry 7, RG 79, NARA; Hanson to Verne Chatelain, 3 May 1936, file 101 History Manassas, box 2596A, entry 7, RG 79, NARA; C. P. Grantham to C. F. Clayton, 17 October 1935; John Cross to W. Dr Goodale, 29 February 1936, both in file 601 - 12, box 130, entry 47, RG 79, NARA.

20. Conrad Wirth to Regional Office, Region 1, 2 July 1937, file 201, box 130, entry 47, RG 79, NARA; Joseph Mills Hanson to Branch Spalding, 14 January 1937, and Hanson to Spalding, 3 April 1937, both in file Correspondence 6/1/33-6/30/37, box 2596A, entry 7, RG 79, NARA; Hanson to Branch of Historic Sites and Buildings, 30 August 1937, and Spalding to Lehman Hutchins, 3 November 1937, both in file National Military Parks Corr., box 2596A, entry 7, RG 79, NARA; Joseph Mills Hanson, "Manassas Battlefield Park Markers," 30 January 1937, file Manassas Battlefield Park Markers, box MANA Retained Info, NPS History Division Archives; Hanson, "Proposed Boundaries and Areas"; "National Park Service Marks Manassas Battle Fields," Manassas Journal, 6 January 1938; "Final Project Report," 1, 5, 7-8.

21. "Final Project Report," 1936, 2-3 and attached Howard W. Smith to Conrad Wirth, 3 June 1935.

22. "Final Project Report," 2 - 3. For a discussion of the 1934 National Park Year, see Joan M. Zenzen, "Promoting National Parks: Images of the West in the American Imagination, 1864-1972" (Ph.D. diss., University of Maryland, 1997).

23. "Final Project Report," 8.

24. Arthur Demaray to Acting Secretary, 3 July 1937, file National Military Parks Corr., box 2596A, entry 7, RG 79, NARA; Hanson, "Proposed Boundaries and Areas," 33.

25. Sarles, "Short History," 14; W. L. Hopkins to Wilbur Hall, 8 July 1935, file Correspondence 6/1/33-6/30/37, box 2596A, entry 7, RG 79, NARA.

26. W. L. Hopkins to Arno B. Cammerer, 30 November 1937, file National Military Parks Correspondence, box 2596A, entry 7, RG 79, NARA; TWX, Branch Spalding to Director, 11 June 1936, file Correspondence 6/1/33-6/30/37, box 2596A, entry 7, RG 79, NARA; Spalding to J. Roy Price, 29 July 1937, and Cammerer to Secretary of Interior, 26 April 1940, both in file National Military Parks Corr., box 2596A, entry 7, RG 79, NARA: Sarles, "Short History," 14-16.

27. Pack Service personnel exchanged correspondence reflecting varying titles fear the proposed battlefield park, using both Bull Run and Manassas as possible names. Spalding supported Manassas National Battlefield Park, while Hanson expressed a preference for Bull Run. See Joseph Mills Hanson to Branch Spalding, 14 January 1937, 2, file Correspondence 6/1/33-6/30/37, box 2596A, entry 7, RG 79, NARA; Sarles, Short History," 15-16; ""Order Designating the Manassas National Battlefield Park, Virginia," 10 May 1940, file National Military Parks Corr., box 2596A, entry 7, RG 79, NARA.

1. Sarles, "Short History," 1; "Statement for Management: Manassas National Battlefield Park," 1989, 7, and Division of Interpretive Planning Harpers Ferry Center, "A Plan for the Interpretation of Manassas National Battlefield Park, Virginia," draft, 3-4, both in Historian's Files, MNBP.

2. Sarles, "Short History," 1-4.

3. William Thompson Lusk, War Letters (New York: privately printed, 1911), 55-59; Susan Leigh Blackford and Charles Minor Blackford, Letters from Lee's Army or Memories of Life in and Out of the Army in Virginia During the War Between the States, ed. Charles Minor Blackford III (New York: Charles Scribner's 1947), 27.

4. O. A. Tomlinson, "Circular for Region Four Field Area," 10 June 1942, file 201-06 Manassas Superintendents and Custodians, box 2596A, entry 7, RG 79, NARA. For a useful guide to the evolution of Park Service regions, see Barry Mackintosh, National Park Service Administrative History: A Guide (Washington, D.C.: National Pack Service, 1991), 111-14. Raleigh C. Taylor, "Superintendent's Monthly Report for June 1941," 5 July 1941, file 207-02.3 Manassas Superintendent's Monthly Reports, box 2596A, entry 7, RG 79, NARA.

5. "Battle Park Wins Praise," Manassas Journal, 25 February 1944; Branch Spalding to Director, 11 May 1939, file Stonewall Jackson Monument, Historian's Files, MNBP.

6. Spalding quoted in Sarles, "Short History," 7-9; "Program, First Battle of Manassas 21 July 1936, file Correspondence 6/1/33-6/30/37, box 2596A, entry 7, RG 79, NARA; T. Sutton Jett, "'First Manassas' in 1936," The Commonwealth, July 1936, 14, box MANA, NPS History Collection, HFC; deed of conveyance between the Manassas Battlefield Confederate Park, Inc., and the United States of America, 19 March 1938, file 01 - 172 Manassas Battlefield, Inc., MNBP Land Holding Records, Headquarters Files, MNBP.

7. Branch Spalding to Director, 11 May 1939; Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, "Prospectus: The Stonewall Jackson Monument Sculpture Competition and Exhibition," October 1939, both in file Stonewall Jackson Monument, Historian's Files, MNBP. Biographical material on Pollia, A. Snyder Files, MNBP.

8. Publicists would use the term "third battle of Manassas" in referring to each of the controversies relating to land use and acquisition at Manassas. "End of Statue Battle," newspaper clipping, file 501.03 Newspaper Clippings Manassas, box 2596C, entry 7, RG 79, NARA. Michael Kammen points out in Mystic Chords of Memory that some of the furor raised by more traditional Southerners towards Pollia's original designs was directed against its "modernistic and impressionistic" design (491).

9. The Park Service has since determined that the statue is not on the site where Jackson and his troops held firm. A. J. Ewald to Files, "Report on Conference Regarding Location of Jackson Equestrian Statue," 27 April 1940, file Stonewall Jackson Monument, Historian's Files, MNBP.

10. Freeman quoted in "2,000 See Jackson Statue Unveiled at Manassas Park," Richmond Times-Dispatch, 1 September 1940; "Manassas Unveils Statue to Stonewall Jackson Aug. 31," Times-Herald, 20 August 1940; and "Jackson Shrine Dedication Focuses Attention on Park," Sunday Star, 18 August 1940, all in file 501.03 Newspaper Clippings Manassas, box 2596C, entry 7, RG 79, NARA; Arthur Demaray to Douglas Southall Freeman, 3 September 1940, file Stonewall Jackson Monument, Historian's Files, MNBP; Sarles, "Short History," 17.

11. Deed of conveyance, 19 March 1938, 3.

12. Carl P. Russell to Director, "Master Plan Bull Run Battlefield," 9 November 1937,6, file National Military Parks Corr., box 2596A, entry 7, RG 79, NARA.

13. Branch Spalding to Regional Director, Region 1, 23 December 1937, "Master Plan"; Spalding to Director, 10 September 1938, "Physical Improvement Project for Manassas"; Spalding to Director, 14 September 1939, "1939 Master Plan," all in file National Military Parks Corr., box 2596A, entry 7, RG 79, NARA; Joseph Mills Hanson, "Preliminary Museum Development Plan, Manassas National Battlefield Park," 1939, 3, box MANA, NPS History Collection, HFC.

14. Deed of conveyance, 19 March 1938. The deed does not stipulate that the museum would serve as a memorial to the soldiers.

15. Thomas Vint to Files, 9 May 1939, file Park Visitor Center, Historian's Files, MNBP; Vint to Regional Director, Region 1, 19 September 1939, file Manassas Correspondence 1939-48, NPS History Division Files; E. M. Lisle to Director, 15 March 1940, file Park Visitor Center, Historian's Files, MNBP; Albert Good to Files, 24 April 1940, "Location of Administration-Museum Building, Bull Run-Manassas Area," file Manassas Correspondence 1939-48, NPS History Division Files; "Work to Start Soon on National Museum for Manassas Field," Washington Star, 18 April 1941; Robert E. Smith, "Final Construction Reports, Administration-Museum Building, Manassas National Battlefield Park," 27 August 1942, 1, 6-7, file Park Visitor Center, Historian's Files, MNBP.

16. Oliver G. Taylor, "Notice of Advertisement," 24 March 1941, file Park Visitor Center, Historian's Files, MNBP; "Work to Start Soon"; R. C. Taylor to C. Spano and Son, 9 May 1941, and Acting Regional Director, Regions 1, to Director, 30 July 1941, both in file Park Visitor Center, Historian's Files, MNBP; R. C. Taylor, "Superintendent's Monthly Narrative Report for June 1941," 5 July 1941, file 207-02.3 Manassas Superintendent's Monthly Reports, box 2596B, entry 7, RG 79, NARA; E. M. Lisle to Superintendent, Manassas, 25 June 1941; Supervisor of Historic Sites to Coordinating Superintendent, 21 August 1941; Arthur Demaray to Regional Director, Region 1, 9 October 1941, last three documents in file Manassas Correspondence 1939-48, NPS History Division Files; Sarles, "Short History," 20; Floyd B. Taylor, "Report on the Manassas National Battlefield Park Museum and Headquarters Building," June 1942, 1, file Park Visitor Center, Historian's Files, MNBP.

17. Thomas Vint to Files, 9 May 1939; Hanson, "Preliminary Museum Plan," 10.

18. Hanson, "Preliminary Museum Plan," 4-6,12.

19. Ibid., 6-10.

20. Ibid., 13-26.

21. Evidence that the Park Service expected a largely white audience at Manassas is found in discussions about segregated toilet facilities. One Park Service memorandum noted that "colored toilets" could be incorporated in the service building since they would be "little used." Other memoranda discussed the possibility of building separate facilities for Park Service employees and for white visitors in the museum building, and a third possibility included separate toilets for whites and blacks, without special facilities for park employees. The fact that only one set of facilities was built in the administration-museum building, without mention of complementary facilities for African Americans in another location, implies that the Park Service largely expected white visitors. See memorandum, "Some Suggestions re R. O. Preliminary Plan for Manassas Administration Building," 20 February 1940, and Thomas Vint to Regional Director, Region 1, 19 September 1939, both in file Manassas Correspondence 1939-48, NPS History Division Files; E. M. Lisle to Director, 15 March 1940, file Park Visitor Center, Historian's Files, MNBP. On Hanson's exhibits on the plantations, see Hanson, "Preliminary Museum Plan," 23.

22. Hanson, "Preliminary Museum Plan," 13, 15-17, 22-23.

23. Floyd B. Taylor, "Report on the Manassas Park Museum," 3.

24. Hanson served as acting superintendent from 21 April 1942 to 5 March 1943, acting custodian to 1 December 1945, and finally custodian until his retirement on 31 December 1947. Although his titles changed, his role as chief administrator at the park did not. See Sarles, "Short History," 25. "Battle Park Wins Praise," Manassas Journal, 25 February 1944; Tomlinson, "Circular for Region Four Field Areas"; "Alexandria Rotary Hears Maj. Hanson," Washington Past, 21 March 1945; "Major J. M. Hanson Visiting Briefly in Yankton," Yankton (S.Dak.) Press and Dakotan, 23 October 1947; J. M. Hanson, Poet and Author, Retires from Park Service," NPS press release, 5 January 1948, file Manassas Correspondence 1939-48, NPS History Division Files; Francis F. Wilshin, interview by S. Herbert Evison, 29 June 1971, transcript, 31, Oral History Collection, NPS History Collection, HFC.

25. R. C. Taylor, "Superintendent's Monthly Narrative Report for June 1941," 5 July 1941, 2, file 207-02.3 Manassas Superintendent's Monthly Reports, box 2596A, entry 7, RG 79, NARA.; Joseph Mills Hanson, "Superintendent's Monthly Narrative Report, May 1942," 2, file 207-02.3 Manassas Superintendent's Monthly Reports, box 2596B, entry 7, RG 79, NARA; "America Is Back on the Road," Manassas Messenger, 16 November 1945; Joseph Mills Hanson, "Annual Report of the Acting Custodian, 1 July 1942-30 June 1943," 3, file 207-01 Manassas Annual Reports, box 2596B, entry 7, RG 79, NARA. Taylor did not have an accurate method for recording the numbers of visitors while he served as superintendent.

26. Hanson, "Annual Report of the Acting Custodian," 1 July 1942-30 June 1943, 3-4, file 207—01 Manassas Annual Reports, box 2596B, entry 7, RG 79, NARA; Hanson, "Superintendent's Monthly Narrative Report," May 1942, 2; February 1943, 2; April 1943, 2; June 1943, 1-2; October 1943, 2, all in file 207—02.3 Manassas Superintendent's Monthly Reports, box 2596B, entry 7, RG 79, NARA.

27. Hanson, "Superintendent's Monthly Narrative Report," June 1944, 1-2; Hanson, "Superintendent's Monthly Report," March 1945, 2-3, both in file 207—02.3 Manassas Superintendent's Monthly Reports, box 2596B, entry 7, RG 79, NARA; Sarles, "Short History," 20.

28. Hanson, "Superintendent's Monthly Narrative Report," March 1945, 3, file 207—02.3 Manassas Superintendent's Monthly Reports, box 2596B, entry 7, RG 79, NARA.

29. Ibid.; Joseph Mills Hanson, "Some Observations on the Manassas National Battlefield Park and Its Problems," 1944, 1-5, file Park History, Historian's Files, MNBP.

1. Kammen, Mystic Chords of Memory, 532-33.

2. Joseph Mills Hanson to Coordinating Superintendent, 9 August 1947, 1; Raleigh C. Taylor to Hiram Duryea, 21 October 1940; Taylor to the Adjutant General State of New York, 1 November 1940, all in file Monuments and Markers N.Y. Monuments and Land Acquisition, Historian's Files, MNBP.

3. Joseph Mills Hanson to Coordinating Superintendent, 28 October 1944, file Monuments and Markers N.Y. Monuments and Land Acquisition, Historian's Files, MNBP.

4. Thomas Allen to Superintendent, Fredericksburg and Spotsylvania County National Military Park, 2 February 1945; Joseph Mills Hanson to E. M. Lisle, 4 October 1945; Hanson to Regional Director, Region 1, 9 December 1946; Hanson to Coordinating Superintendent, 9 August 1947; Hanson to Coordinating Superintendent, 14 August 1947, all in file Monuments and Markers N.Y. Monuments and Land Acquisition, Historian's Files, MNBP. According to the land ownership records at the park, Rush W. Boyer conducted an appraisal in 1946 for the Hottel and individual home tracts. See Land Ownership Records Manassas, MNBP Land Holding Records, Headquarters Files, MNBP.

5. Conrad Wirth to James Evans, 15 February 1950, and Harold L. Peterson, "Draft of Speech for Senator Ives," 1 March 1949, both in file MNBP N.Y. Monuments 1949-1957, NPS History Division Files.

6. Newton Drury to Charles Stevenson, 15 May 1950, file MNBP N.Y. Monuments 1949-1957, NPS History Division Files; Conrad Wirth to Regional Director, Region 1, 18 May 1950, "New York State Monuments and Possible Land Acquisition at Manassas"; James Evans to Arthur McLoughlin, 15 August 1950, both in file Monuments and Markers N.Y. Monuments and Land Acquisition Historian's Files, MNBP; Sarles, "Short History," 19.

7. Myers originally served as custodian from 12 January 1948 to 21 December 1948 and then received the title of superintendent. See Sarles, Short History," 25. "Myers Appointed Park Custodian," Free Lance-Star (Fredericksburg), 10 January 1948; Conrad Wirth to Regional Director, Region 1, 18 May 1950, "New York State Monuments and Possible Land Acquisition at Manassas"; James Evans to Arthur McLoughlin, 15 August 1950; James B. Myers, "Report on Lands Surrounding the New York Monuments near Manassas National Battlefield Park, June-September 1950"; Evans to Wirth 8 March 1951, last four documents in file Monuments and Markers N.Y. Monuments and Land Acquisition, Historian's Files, MNBP; Sarles, "Short History," 19.

8. Arthur McLoughlin to Charles Stevenson, 1 June 1951; James B. Myers to Regional Director, Region 1, 30 November 1951; Conrad Wirth to Regional Director, Region 1, 2 June 1952; Wirth to James Evans, 11 August 1952, all in file Monuments and Markers N.Y. Monuments and Land Acquisition, Historian's Files, MNBP. See Myers's breakdown of the priorities for land acquisition in his "Report on Lands Surrounding Use New York Monuments near Manassas National Battlefield Park, June-September 1950."

9. Conrad Wirth to James Evans, 5 May 1952; Hillory Tolson to Evans, 6 February 1953, both in file Monuments and Markers N.Y. Monuments and Land Acquisition, Historian's Files, MNBP.

10. Hillory Tolson to James Evans, 6 February 1953, file Monuments and Markers N.Y. Monuments and Land Acquisition, Historian's Files, MNBP.

11. At the time the 1937 report was written, the first priority for land acquisition was the Manassas Battlefield Confederate Park on Henry Hill, then the New York Monument land and then the Dogan House. See Hanson, "Proposed Boundaries and Areas," 35; Joseph Mills Hanson to Coordinating Superintendent, 9 August 1947, 3; Hanson to Coordinating Superintendent, 29 December 1947, 2, file 620 Buildings Dogan House, box 2596C, entry 7, RG 79, NARA; Joseph Mills Hanson and Francis F. Wilshin, "Manassas Museum Prospectus," January 1947, 60, file Park History, Historian's Files, MNBP.

12. Joseph Mills Hanson to Coordinating Superintendent, 29 December 1947, 1-2, 5-6; Hanson to Coordinating Superintendent, 9 August 1947, 3; Sarles, "Short History," 19.

13. James B. Myers to Coordinating Superintendent, 8 March 1948, file Manassas Lands January 1948-September 1949, box 13, acc. 67A-1022, Washington National Records Center (WNRC); Myers to Coordinating Superintendent, 4 November 1948, file 620 Buildings Dogan House, box 2596C, entry 7, RG 79, NARA; Sarles, "Short History," 17.

14. Joseph Mills Hanson to Coordinating Superintendent, 9 August 1947, 2; Hanson and Wilshin, "Museum Prospectus," 1947, 59-60.

15. Joseph Mills Hanson to Ronald F. Lee, 15 March 1948, file Manassas Correspondence 1939-48, NPS History Division Files; "$17,000 Voted to Purchase Stone House," Manassas Messenger, 16 March 1948.

16. Hillory Tolson to Director, 26 September 1947, and Arthur Demaray to Regional Director, Region 1, 17 December 1947, both in file Manassas Correspondence 1939-48, NPS History Division Files.

17. Sarles, "Short History," 19; James B. Myers, "Monthly Narrative Report," June 1948, 2, file 207-02.3 Manassas Superintendent's Monthly Report, box 2596B, entry 7, RG 79, NARA; Thomas Allen to Director, 13 July 1948, file Ayres Property Stone House, box 2596C, entry 7, RG 79, NARA; Arthur Demaray to Regional Director, Region 1, 26 July 1948; Director to the Secretary, 23 August 1948; Conrad Wirth to Regional Director, Region 1, 24 August 1948, last three documents in file Manassas Correspondence 1939-48, NPS History Division Files.

18. Michael D. Litterst, "The Stone House: Silent Sentinel at the Crossroads of History," 12, file National Register-MANA, Gary Scott Files, National Capital Region (NCR) Files.

19. Francis F. Wilshin to Superintendent, 25 March 1948, 2, file 620 Buildings Chinn House, box 2596C, entry 7, RG 79, NARA; Wilshin to Regional Director, Southeast Regional Office (SERO), 28 October 1968, file Chinn House, Chinn Family History, Historian's Files, MNBP.

20. Francis F. Wilshin to Superintendent, 25 March 1948, 2; Wilshin to Regional Director, SERO, 28 October 1968, both in file 620 Buildings Chinn House, box 2596C, entry 7, RG 79, NARA.

21. I thank Ray Brown for providing me with a succinct chronology on the Chinn House and an evaluation of its importance to the park's history. Francis F. Wilshin to Superintendent, 25 March 1948, 2; Wilshin to Regional Director, SERO, 28 October 1968, both in file 620 Buildings Chinn House, box 2596C, entry 7, RG 79, NARA.

22. "$14,784 Allocated for National Park Museum," Manassas Messenger, 16 August 1946; "National Park Service Officials Inaugurate Expansion Program at Local Battlefield Park," Manassas Messenger, 24 January 1947.

23. Hanson and Wilshin, "Museum Prospectus," 1947.

24. Hanson, "Preliminary Museum Plan," 10-11, 21-22; Hanson and Wilshin also drafted a prospectus in 1946 that highlighted their basic ideas on exhibits. See Joseph Mills Hanson, "1946 Prospectus for Museum," file Park Visitor Center, Historian's Files, MNBP.

25. Wilshin, interview, 38-39.

26. O. F. Northington to Regional Director, Region 1, 17 February 1947, with memoranda by Joseph Mills Hanson and Ronald Lee attached, file Park Visitor Center, Historian's Files, MNBP; 1947 Museum Plan, floor layout, Historian's Files, MNBP.

27. Francis F. Wilshin, "Historian's Monthly Report," September 1947, 1-2; Wilshin, "Historian's Monthly Report," October 1947, 2; Wilshin, "Historian's Monthly Report," December 1947, 2-3; Wilshin, "Report of Historian Wilshin, February 1948, 2; Wilshin, "Historian's Monthly Report," August 1948, 1-2, all in file 207-03 Historians Manassas, box 2596B, entry 7, RG 79, NARA; Ralph Lewis, Museum Laboratory, to Chief, History Division, 19 December 1947, 1-2; Charles Porter to Ned Burns, 11 August 1948; Ronald F. Lee to Regional Director, Region 1, 29 October 1948, last three documents in file Manassas Correspondence 1939-48, NPS History Division Files; James B. Myers, "Annual Narrative Report," 1948, 3, file 207-01 Manassas Annual Report, box 2596B, entry 7, RG 79, NARA.

28. James B. Myers, "Monthly Narrative Report," January 1949, 2, and Myers, "Monthly Narrative Report," May 1949, 2-3, both in file 207-02.3 Manassas Superintendent's Monthly Report, box 2596B, entry 7, RG 79, NARA.

29. Photographs of May 1949 museum displays and layout, Museum Collection, MNBP; "Museum Enriched, to Open May 28 at Battlefield," Manassas Messenger, 17 May 1949; "Museum to Be Opened on the Site of the First Battle of the Civil War," NPS press release, 23 May 1949, file 501.03 Newspaper Clippings Manassas, box 2596C, entry 7, RG 79, NARA.

30. Arthur Demaray to Regional Director, Region 1, 17 December 1947, file Manassas Correspondence 1939-48, NPS History Division Files.

31. Congressman Howard W. Smith of Virginia introduced H.R. 5911 near the end of the 80th Congress in 1948; there is no evidence of committee action on this bill. Associate Director to the Under Secretary, 1 February 1949, file Monuments and Markers N.Y. Monuments and Land Acquisition, Historian's Collection, MNBP; Secretary of the Interior to Andrew Somers, 17 March 1949, file Manassas Correspondence 1949-57, NPS History Division Files.

32. A Bill to Authorize the Addition of Certain Lands to Manassas National Battlefield Park, 80th Cong., 2d sess., 1948, H.R. 5911; A Bill to Authorize the Addition of Certain Lands to Manassas National Battlefield Park, 81st Cong., 1st sess., 1949, H.R. 3297; A Bill to Authorize the Addition of Certain Lands to Manassas National Battlefield Park, 82d Cong., 1st sess., 1951, H.R. 3041; Assistant Director to Director, 6 March 1953; Hillory Tolson to Wesley D'Ewart, 17 July 1953; Orme Lewis to A. L. Miller, 15 October 1953; D. Otis Beasley to Joseph Dodge, 13 April 1954, last four documents in file Manassas Legislation, NPS History Division Files; Preserving within Manassas National Battlefield Park, Va., the Most Important Historic Properties Relating to the Battles of Manassas 83d Cong., 2d sess., 1954, H. Rpt. 1099; Preserving Within Manassas National Battlefield Park, Va., the Most Important Historic Properties Relating to the Battles of Manassas, 83d Cong., 2d sess., 1954, S. Rpt. 1141; Public Law 338, 83d Cong., 2d sess., 17 April 1954, An Act to Preserve Within Manassas National Battlefield Park, Va., the Most Important Historic Properties Relating to the Battles of Manassas.

33. P.L. 338.

34. Land ownership records for Hottel tract, 2 November 1953; Patterson tract, 7 February 1955; Early tract, 19 December 1955; Hottel tract, 13 January 1956, all in Land Ownership Records Manassas, MNBP Land Holding Records, Headquarters Files, MNBP.

35. Douglas McKay to Senator Ives, 14 March 1953, file Monuments and Markers N.Y. Monuments and Land Acquisition, Historian's Files, MNBP; land ownership record for New York Monuments, 11 June 1958, Land Ownership Records Manassas, MNBP Land Holding Records, Headquarters Files, MNBP.

1. Anne D. Snyder, interview by author, 19 October 1993, transcript, 6-7, NPS.

2. Cary Boshamer, "Former Park Chief Dies," Journal Messenger (Manassas), 27 April 1990; Wilshin, interview, 1-5, 29.

3. James B. Myers, "Interpretive Section of the Development Outline for the Master Plan of the Manassas National Battlefield Park," 27 February 1952, 28, 31-38, file Manassas, box 17, acc. 69A-4025, RG 79, WNRC.

4. Ibid., 30, 33.

5. Ibid., 33-35; James B. Myers, "Revision, Proposed Interpretive Tour Plan, Manassas National Battlefield Park," 1954, 1-6, included with Chief Historian to Regional Director, Region 1, 16 March 1954, file Manassas Correspondence 1949-57, NPS History Division Files.

6. Myers, "Interpretive Section of Development Outline," 33-35, and attached December 1953 introduction, 1.

7. Acting Chief Historian to Chief, Design and Construction Division, 19 October 1953, "Introduction Section, Development Outline, Manassas NBP"; Chief Historian to Regional Director, Region 1, 27 October 1953, "Narrative Markers, Battlefield of Second Manassas"; Herbert Kahler to Regional Director, Region 1, 15 March 1954, "Texts for Proposed Narrative Markers, Manassas NBP," and attached marker texts and letter James B. Myers to Regional Director, Region 1, 1 February 1954; Chief Historian to Regional Director, Region 1, 16 March 1954, "Interpretive Tour Plan, Manassas NBP," and attached "Revision, Proposed Interpretive Tour Plan and Self-Guided Tour, Second Manassas, all in file Manassas Correspondence 1949-57, NPS History Division Files.

8. Myers, "Interpretive Section of the Development Outline," 39, and attached 1953 introduction, 3. Handwritten on the approval sheet is the statement "No approval action because of Mission 66."

9. Wilshin, interview, 40; "Statement of Significance and Highlights of Mission 66 Planning for Manassas National Battlefield Park," n.d., file Manassas Correspondence 1958-61, NPS History Division Files; Francis F. Wilshin to Director, 31 January 1957, "Annual Report on Information and Interpretive Services 1956," 1, file K1819 Information and Interpretive Annual Report 1957, box 8, acc. 66A-661, WNRC. L. Van Loan Naisawald, "Supplemental Museum Prospectus for Manassas National Battlefield Park," September 1958, 11-12, 15, file D6215 MANA 1958-66, box 13, acc. 70-A-4388, WNRC. My discussion of the Mission 66 plan is based on Wilshin's correspondence, memoranda, and other planning documents. I have searched NPS history files and National Archives and Federal Records Center files for the 1956 Mission 66 Prospectus that Wilshin prepared, but I have not located it.

10. Francis F. Wilshin to Regional Director, Region 1, 20 November 1957, "On-Site Study," 2, file D18 Manassas 1957, box 1, acc. 68A-2955, WNRC; Public Law 338, 83d Cong., 2d sess., 17 April 1954, An Act to Preserve Within Manassas National Battlefield Park, Va., the Most Important Historic Properties Relating to the Battles of Manassas.

11. Although the term "visitor center" may have been used infrequently earlier in the Park Service, Mission 66 formalized its use. Correspondence from the Manassas National Battlefield Park uses the phrase "museum-administration building" until the Mission 66 period, at which points it adopts the newer term. "Statement of Significance and Highlights of Mission 66"; Naisawald, "Supplemental Museum Prospectus," 12-13, 25.

12. "Statement of Significance and Highlights of Missions 66"; Ronald F. Lee to Chief, Mission 66 Staff, 21 November 1956, file Manassas Correspondence 1949-57, NPS History Division Files; Naisawald, "Supplemental Museum Prospectus," 11 - 15.

13. "Statement of Significance and Highlights of Mission 66"; Wilshin, "Annual Report 1956," 3, 7; Wilshin, interview, 61-62. Wilshin's annual report states that Eastern donated both the guns and the carriages, although the Manassas battlefield park's museum files (which are incomplete) mention only the carriages.

14. T. Sutton Jets to Director, 4 June 1936, file NEC, box 2596C, entry 7, RG 79, NARA; Hanson, "Preliminary Museum Plan," 1939.

15. Wilshin, interview, 40; Francis F. Wilshin to Director, 31 January 1958, "Annual Report on Information and Interpretive Services 1957," 7, file K1819 Information and Interpretive Annual Report 1958; Wilshin to Director, 3 February 1959, "Annual Report on Information and Interpretive Services 1958," 5, file K1819 Information and Interpretive Annual Reports 1959, both in box 8, acc. 66A-661, WNRC.

16. Wilshin, interview, 56-57; Elbert Cox to the Director, 19 March 1957, file Manassas Correspondence 1949-57, NPS History Division Files; "Francis Wilshin," Journal Messenger (Manassas), 7 March 1957, file Park History I-66 Road Placement, Historian's Files, MNBP.

17. "Highway Invasion Ignites New Battle of Manassas," Evening Star (Washington, D.C.), 13 March 1957; Muriel Guinn, "Virginia Freeway Plan Draws Fire," Washington Post and Times Herald, 13 March 1957; "Interstate Route Meets Opposition at Manassas," Richmond Times-Dispatch, 13 March 1957; "Strong Opposition Accorded Proposed 29-211 Highway Link," Journal Messenger (Manassas), 14 March 1957, all in file Park History I-66 Road Placement, Historian's Collection, MNBP; Elbert Cox to the Director, 19 March 1957, file Manassas Correspondence 1949-57, NPS History Division Filet.

18. Elbert Cox to the Director, 19 March 1957, file Manassas Correspondence 1949-57, NPS History Division Files; "Highway Invasion Ignites New Battle"; Guinn, "Virginia Freeway Plan Draws Fire"; "Interstate Route Meets Opposition"; Conrad Wirth to James Anderson, 15 April 1957, file Manassas Correspondence 1949-57, NPS History Division Files.

19. Wilshin, interview, 57-58.

20. Wilshin, interview, 58; the Civil War Round Table of the District of Columbia, resolution, 12 March 1957, and Robert E. Lee Camp no. 726, Sons of Confederate Veterans, resolution, n.d., both in file Park History I-66 Road Placement, Historian's Files, MNBP.

21. "Publicity," n.d., file Park History I-66 Road Placement, Historian's Files, MNBP.

22. Snyder, interview, 3-7; Joel Garreau, Edge City: Life on the New Frontier (New York: Doubleday, 1991), 406.

23. Snyder, interview, 1-2, 9; Garreau, Edge City, 406.

24. Francis F. Wilshin to Regional Director, 13 July 1957, file D30 Manassas 1957, box 1, acc. 68A-2955, WNRC; Wilshin, interview, 58-59.

25. Francis F. Wilshin to Regional Director, Region 1, 16 January 1958, file D30 Manassas 1957, box 1, acc. 68A-2955, WNRC; Wilshin, interview, 59-60.

26. Wilshin, interview, 53.

27. Ibid., 55-56.

28. Ibid., 43-45; Land ownership record for Stone House Inn, 8 April 1958, Land Ownership Records Manassas, MNBP Land Holding Records, Headquarters Files, MNBP. I believe the Stone House Inn property was part of the Stone House tract in 1939 when Joseph Mills Hanson designated areas for inclusion in the proposed park. If so, the tract was considered one of the top ten properties identified for the park. See Hanson, "Report on Proposed Boundaries and Areas."

29. L. Van Loan Naisawald, interview by author, 2 February 1994, transcript, 6, NPS; Wilshin, interview, 40. Wilshin related the story of the Stennis tour of Manassas many times and with obvious enthusiasm; Annie Snyder remembered being told about the event nearly forty years later. See Snyder, interview, 10-11.

30. Wilshin, interview, 40-42; Francis F. Wilshin to Director, 3 February 1959, 1.

31. Wilshin, interview, 42.

32. Congressional Record, 86th Cong., 1st sess., 1959, 105, pt. 8:10791-94; Manassas Town Council, resolution adopted, 6 April 1959, file Manassas Correspondence 1958-61, NPS History Division Files; Board of Supervisors, Minutes, 9 April 1959, book 10, 132, Prince William County (PWC) Archives; Board of Supervisors, Minutes, 27 August 1959, book 10, 205, PWC Archives.

33. Comparison of the boundary maps during this period provides the best and quickest way to see the results of Wilshin's land acquisition program. See Boundary and Land Status Maps for Manassas National Battlefield Park dated 5 February 1959, 1 July 1963, and December 1965, NCR Land Use Files.

34. Wilshin, interview, 51; land ownership record for Old Stone Bridge, Bull Run, 19 December 1961, and land ownership record for four highway parcels, 16 December 1960, both in Land Ownership Records Manassas, MNBP Land Holding Records, Headquarters Files, MNBP.

35. Wilshin, interview, 51-52; land ownership record for Old Stone Bridge, Bull Run. The Park Service demolished Use monument. In 1990 park historian Ed Raus tried without success to locate the plaque removed from the monument.

36. Land ownership record for tracts 67-68, 4 February 1960, Land Ownership Records Manassas, Headquarters Files, MNBP. Ida Blakey owned the third tract associated with Battery Heights.

37. Betty Duley, interview by author, 14 July 1994, transcript, 7-8, NPS; land ownership record for tracts 67-68, 4 February 1960; Prince William County Land Deed Book 253, p. 144, PWC Archives. According to the Land Book for 1960, the total assessed value of the land and improvements on the Steele tract was $35,800 [?]. See Prince William County Land Book 1960, p. 493, PWC Archives.

38. Wilshin, interview, 46; Duley, interview, 7-8; Snyder, interview, 8.

39. Wilshin, interview, 46; Snyder, interview, 8.

40. In his oral history, Wilshin relates that the idea for the reenactment may have surfaced in late 1959. In the prospectus for First Manassas Incorporated, the group formed to coordinate and finance the reenactment, it is noted that the "germ of the idea" came during a September 1958 conference at the Manassas National Battlefield Park. The 1958 annual report does not mention this meeting. The fact that Wilshin produced a detailed advance plan for the reenactment, including cost estimates, in February 1960 suggests that the idea had been developing for longer than a few months. See Wilshin, interview, 64; the Committee for First Manassas, "First Manassas (A Prospectus)," prepared by Wilbur W. Nusbaum, 7 April 1960, 12, box MANA, NPS History Collection, HFC; Francis F. Wilshin, "Part of Advance Plan of Proposed Reenactment of First Manassas Proposed for 22 July 1961," 22 February 1960, file Manassas Correspondence 1958-61, NPS History Division Files. Sinclair Oil Company released ads for the First Manassas reenactment, describing the events planned for the commemoration and providing travel tips. See ads in the Reenactment file, Museum Collection, MNBP. John Bodnar, Remaking America: Public Memory, Commemoration, and Patriotism in the Twentieth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), 206-8; Kammen, Mystic Chords of Memory, 590-610.

41. Committee for First Manassas, "First Manassas (A Prospectus) "; Wilshin, "Advance Plan of Proposed Reenactment," 2; "Certificate of Sponsorship, 100th Anniversary, First Battle of Manassas, Virginia, or Bull Run," n.d., 2; J. Leonard Volz to Regional Director, Region 1, n.d., "Critique of Reenactment," last two documents in Museum Collection, MNBP.

42. Wilshin, "Advance Plan of Proposed Reenactment"; Committee for First Manassas, "First Manassas (A Prospectus)"; J. Leonard Volz to Regional Director, Region 1, n.d., 2-3.

43. "Cooperative Agreement Between Director, National Park Service, and First Manassas Corporation, Incorporated, relating to the Staging of a Re-enactment of the First Battle of Director, Region 1, n.d., 2, both in Museum Collection, MNBP.

44. "Cooperative Agreement," draft, 2-3.

45. The Park Service also attempted to complete restoration of the Stone Bridge before the reenactment but later postponed this work until 1962 so the general public could use the bridge during the centennial. See Orville W. Carroll, "Historic Structures Report, Part 3, on Stabilization of the Stone Bridge," February 1963, i, 1-2, Library Collection, MNBP. For information on the Dogan and Stone houses, see Orville W. Carroll, "Historic Structures Report, Architectural Data, Part 1, Rehabilitation and Restoration of the Dogan House," April 1960, ii-iii; Orville W. Carroll, "Historic Structures Report, Part 3, on Dogan House," June 1962, 3-5, 12; and Orville W. Carroll, "Historic Structures Report Architectural Data, Part 1, Preparatory to the Restoration of the Stone House," November 1960, 26, all in Library Collection, MNBP.

46. Ralph Lewis to Francis F. Wilshin, 14 June 1960, "Exhibit Plan, Manassas NBP," and attached correspondence and plan, Museum Collection, MNBP; Francis F. Wilshin, "The Stone House, Embattled Landmark of Bull Run, Part 1, Narrative and Appendix," 21 March 1961, introduction, Library Collection, MNBP; Edwin C. Bearss, interview by author, 5 April 1994, transcript, 7, NPS.

47. "Certificate of Sponsorship, 100th Anniversary," 2; J. Walter Coleman to Chief Historian, "Conference on Manassas Re-enactment," 17 May 1961, and Conrad Wirth to Virgil Jones, 21 April 1961, both in file Manassas Correspondence 1958-61, NPS History Division Files; Francis F. Wilshin to Director, "Annual Report of Interpretive Services," 31 January 1961, WNRC; Wilshin, interview, 65, 71.

48. J. Leonard Volz to Regional Director, Region 1, n.d, 3-4; James Fry to Francis F. Wilshin, 8 September 1961, "Summary of Costs of Reenactment," file A8227 Manassas, box 11, acc. 68- A- 3048, WNRC.

49. J. Leonard Volz to Regional Director, Region 1, n.d., 4-5; Regional Director to Francis F. Wilshin, 19 May 1961, "Assistance During Final Planning Stage-Reenactment of First Manassas," Museum Collection, MNBP; Volz to Regional Director, Region 1, 11 August 1961, " Suggested Guidelines for Large-Scale Special Events," 2, Museum Collection, MNBP.

50. J. Leonard Volz to Regional Director, 19 June 1961, "Progress Report, Reenactment of the Battle of First Manassas, Museum Collection, MNBP; Volz to Regional Director, Region 1, 11 August 1961; Volz to Regional Director, Region 1, n.d., 7-8; Roger Rogers, Regional Publications Officer, to Regional Director, "Report on Press Relations for Reenactment of First Manassas, July 22 and 23," 25 July 1961, file A8227 Manassas, box 11, acc. 68-A-3048, WNRC; Naisawald, interview, 10.

51. Naisawald, interview, 9-10; Bearss, interview, 7-8.

52. J. Leonard Volz to Regional Director, Region 1, 12 June 1961, "Narration of Reenactment," Museum Collection, MNBP; Naisawald, interview, 11; Francis F. Wilshin and David Thompson, "Script for the Reenactment of the Battle of First Manassas, file Reenactment, Museum Collection, MNBP.

53. Fritz S. Updike, "Bull Run Re-Enactment Shows Spirit America Needs Today," newspaper clipping, file Reenactment, Museum Collection, MNBP.

54. Wilshin, interview, 68, 71; Raymond J. Crowley, "Blistering Sun Again Burns Manassas as Blue and Gray Re-Enact Battle," newspaper clipping, file Reenactment, Museum Collection, MNBP.

55. "Grand Reenactment: The Battle of First Manassas (Bull Run), July 21-23, 1961," promotional pamphlet, file Reenactment, Museum Collection, MNBP; Wilshin, interview, 68.

56. John Howard to Sir, n.d., file Reenactment, Museum Collection, MNBP; Updike, "Bull Run Re-Enactment Shows Spirit"; Crowley, "Blistering Sun Again Burns Manassas"; J. Leonard Volz to Regional Director, Region 1, n.d., 11.

57. "Remarks by Conrad L. Wirth Director, National Park Service, at the Re-Enactment of the First Battle of Manassas at Manassas National Battlefield Park, Virginia, July 22, 1961," Department of the Interior press release, 22 July 1961, box MANA, NPS History Collection, HFC; Conrad Wirth to Regional Director, Regions 1, 14 August 1961, "Re-enactment of Civil War and Other Battles," file Manassas Correspondence 1958-61, NPS History Division Files Bodnar, Remaking America, 214-15.

58. "An Appomattox at Manassas, Richmond News Leader, 25 July 1961, file A8227 Manassas, box 11, acc. 68-A-3048, WNRC. The Berryman editorial cartoon in the Washington Star drubbed the traffic jam as the third battle of Manassas, file Reenactment, Museum Collection, MNBP; J. Leonard Volz to Regional Director, 11 August 1961, 1; Volz to Regional Director, Region 1, n.d., 11; Kammen, Mystic Chords of Memory, 593, 595-96, 605-06.

59. Conrad Wirth to Regional Director, Region 1, 14 August 1961; J. Leonard Volz to Regional Director, Region 1, n.d., 11; Bearss, interview, 8; J. Walter Coleman to R. U. Darby, 4 December 1961, file Manassas Correspondence 1958-61, NPS History Division Files.

1. W. Mikell to Director, 11 February 1965, "Museum Exhibits-Manassas," and attached memo from Wilshin, Exhibit File Manassas, NPS Historic Photographic Collection.

2. Ralph Lewis to Francis F. Wilshin, 14 June 1960, "Exhibit Plan, Manassas NBP," and attached exhibit plan, especially exhibit numbers 1, 5, 8, 14, 20, 21, Museum Collection, MNBP.

3. Raymond Mulvaney to Director, 9 March 1964, "Exhibit Construction Costs, Visitor Center, Horseshoe Bend"; W. E. O'Neil to Regional Programs Officer, SERO, 17 September 1964, "Museum Exhibits"; Cross-reference sheet, Castillo de San Marcus, 6 November 1964; W. Mikell to Director, 11 February 1965, "Museum Exhibits, Manassas and attached memorandum Wilshin to Regional Director, SERO, 8 February 1965, "Installation of New Museum Exhibits," all in Exhibit File Manassas, NPS Historic Photographic Collection.

4. "Master Plan of Manassas National Battlefield Park,"July 1965, chap. 3, file Park History, Historian's Files, MNBP; Howard Baker to William Hauser, 13 March 1964, and attached letter from Hauser to Stewart L. Udall, 28 February 1964, and William Everhart to Chief, Eastern Museum Laboratory, 11 May 1965, "Manassas Planning Meeting," both in Exhibit File Manassas, NPS Historic Photographic Collection.

5. Bearss, interview, 6; Naisawald, interview, 8-9. Russell Berry, who succeeded Wilshin as superintendent in 1969, confirmed that Wilshin focused on the historical work, leaving administrative duties to Mildred Gay. See Russell W. Berry Jr., interview by author, 10 February 1994, transcript, 32-38, NPS.

6. Bearss, interview, 5,10; Naisawald, interview, 5, 7.

7. Bearss, interview, 4, 5, 9.

8. In 1960, after Naisawald resigned as park historian and Mrs. Frances Dogan, one of the last residents of the Dogan House, retired as tour leader, Wilshin obtained permission to convert the tour leader position into another park historian job. In this way, Wilshin obtained two park historians. Wilshin also had a seasonal ranger who provided interpretive help during spring and summer. Francis F. Wilshin to Director, 31 January 1961, "Annual Report of Interpretive Services," 1-2, 5-6, 14, file K1819 Interpretive Activities Annual Report 1960 Narrative, box 8, acc. 66A-661, WNRC.

9. Jackson Price to Chief, Division of Museums, 19 August 1968, Manassas Visitor Center Exhibit Plan," and attached memorandum from Francis F. Wilshin to Regional Director, SERO, 16 August 1968, Exhibit File Manassas, NPS Historic Photographic Collection; Manassas National Battlefield Park Visitor Center," final draft, August 1968, Museum Collection, MNBP; "Excerpt from Monthly Report Museum Support Group at Harpers Ferry," August 1968, Exhibit File Manassas, NPS Historic Photographic Collection; "Interpretive Prospectus, Manassas National Battlefield Park," 1971, 12, file K1817 (two of three), Headquarters Files, MNBP.

10. "Park Visitor Center," exhibit 18; Hendrickson, Chief, Division of Museums, to Regional Director, SERO, 23 July 1969, "Review and Approval, Manassas Projection Map Script," Exhibit File Manassas, NPS Historic Photographic Collection. The 1971 interpretive prospectus for the park indicates that the battlefield map was being installed in the map room, the second and smaller room of the museum. "Interpretive Prospectus," 2, 8.

11. "Park Visitor Center," esp. exhibits 3, 7-14.

12. Francis F. Wilshin to Regional Director, SERO, 24 July 1968, "Opening of the Stone House," Exhibit File Manassas, NPS Historic Photographic Collection. Naisawald lived in the Stone House when he first came to the park. The building had been renovated to serve as a living quarters when it first transferred to the Park Service, but its heating had deteriorated by the time Naisawald moved in. See Naisawald, interview, 2. The Stone House did not open when Wilshin planned. The 1971 interpretive prospectus suggests that Berry, Wilshin's successor, was in the process of setting up the field hospital exhibit in the early 1970s. Richard Hoffman, superintendent of Manassas during the mid-1970s, remembered later that he oversaw the final installation of the field hospital exhibit at Stone House, replacing an antebellum plantation display that had been on exhibit during Berry's superintendency. I have not found supporting documentation regarding the antebellum plantation display. Richard Hoffman, interview by author, 31 March 1994, transcript, 31, NPS.

13. "Opposition Grows to Park Cemetery," 20 February 1969, Journal Messenger (Manassas).

14. Ironically, Snyder and I LeKander, both longtime Republicans, had worked hard to get Scott into Congress. "Opposition Grows to Park Cemetery"; George Hartzog to Secretary of the Interior, 13 February 1969, "Proposal of Congressman Scott, Manassas National Battlefield Park," and Francis F. Wilshin to Regional Director, SERO, 17 March 1969, "Friends of the Park Meeting, Prince William County Court House, March 14, 1969," both in file Cemetery, National Cemetery Controversy 1969-70, Historian's Files, MNBP.

15. George Hartzog to the Secretary of the Interior, 13 February 1969; House Committee on Veterans' Affairs, Proposed Establishment of a National Cemetery Adjacent to Manassas National Battlefield Park: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Hospitals on H.R. 8818 and Related Bills, 91st Cong., 1st sess., 23 September 1969, 2457.

16. Russell Train to Olin Teague, Chairman of the Committee on Veterans' Affairs, 22 September 1969, box MANA, NPS History Collection, HFC.

17. Robert Utley to Director, 5 March 1969, and attached memorandum, Edwin C. Bearss to Chief Historian, 28 February 1969, file Manassas Correspondence 1962-72, NPS History Division Files; Bearss, interview, 9.

18. Wilshin, interview, 74-75; Francis F. Wilshin to Regional Director, SERO, 17 March 1969, 1-4.

19. Francis F. Wilshin to Regional Director, SERO, 17 March 1969, 1. An example of the point-by-point rebuttal format used by the Friends of the Park to argue against the national cemetery can be seen in Anne Snyder to Robert Bridges, 9 March 1969, A. Snyder Files, MNBP. Wilshin more than likely provided some of this information; he was working with Snyder's group in the strategy meetings. An indication of Wilshin's devotion to the battlefield park and his opposition to the national cemetery proposal is a poem he wrote at this time: "This Manassas, this hallowed battleground, fear ye ghostly legions of Bull Run who here 200,000 strong, twice fought with such desperate gallantry for liberty and principle. We pledge you our honor, we shall not falter, we shall not fail, to keep faith in our tryst with the past. We shall not be diverted by the false cry of dual use, nor the callous claim of economic expediency. To the thousands of you whose blood stains these fields—to the hundreds of you who yet silently sleep in unmarked graves—we solemnly swear that time will not dim the luster of your deathless deeds, nor will perverted interest impair your heroic images. Sleep on undisturbed, a grateful nation will find other means to provide your gallant sons honored burial" (Wilshin, interview, 76-77).

20. Charles Carothers to William L. Scott, 28 April 1969, file Cemetery, National Cemetery Controversy 1969-70, Historian's Files, MNBP; Francis F. Wilshin to Regional Director, SERO, 17 March 1969, 2-6; Bearss, interview, 9.

21. Charles Carothers to William L. Scott, 28 April 1969, 1.

22. Barry Mackintosh, conversation with author, Washington, D.C., 3 October 1994.

23. House Committee, Proposed Establishment of a National Cemetery, table of contents, 2514-17, 2570-73.

24. Statement of Anne D. Snyder, House Committee, Proposed Establishment of a National Cemetery, 2524-27.

25. Snyder, interview, 18-19; A Bill to Provide for the Establishment of an Additional National Cemetery to Supplement Arlington National Cemetery, 91st Cong., 1st sess., 1969, H.R. 8921. Representative Bow did not need LeKander to convince him of the value of preserving the park; Bow's grandfather had fought at one of the Manassas battles.

26. Snyder, interview, 18-19.

27. Ibid., 19-20,23, 24, 26-30.

28. Ibid., 11.

29. I thank Barry Mackintosh for providing background information about NPS management training during the 1960s.

30. Berry, interview, 1-3. Barry Mackintosh clarified for me that the orientation program took eleven weeks and included a history of the Park Service as well as practical skill building in fighting forest fires, rappelling cliff faces, and other ranger activities. Interpretive skill building was also included. Berry's two different administrative titles at Manassas did not reflect a change in duties. The National Park Service had established a group park arrangement with two satellite parks—Manassas and the George Washington Birthplace National Monument—coming under tIme general supervision of the superintendent at the Fredericksburg and Spotsylvania County Battlefields Memorial National Military Park. During his four years at Manassas, Berry set the overall policy and kept the general superintendent informed, a relationship similar to that between park superintendents and the regional director. See Berry, interview, 3-4.

31. Berry, interview, 34, 37. Ed Bearss tells the story of how Berry convinced Wilshin to move out of the superintendent's house. See Bearss, interview, 12. Mildred Gay, who still lives near the park, declined the author's requests for an interview.

32. Berry, interview, 5, 7, 12-13, 16-17. Naisawald also encountered fox hunting on the battlegrounds while he was serving as the Manassas park historian. See Naisawald, interview, 25-27.

33. Berry, interview, 4-7; map, 1966 PWC telephone directory, Virginiana Room, Bull Run Library, Manassas, Va.; David Hobson, executive director, Northern Virginia Regional Park Authority, telephone conversation with Jacelee DeWaard, 9 May 1995.

34. Francis E. Wilshin to Regional Director, SERO, 17 March 1969, 2, 5-6.

35. The signs restricting recreational use to the picnic area went up and down three times during Berry's tenure in response to political pressures. Nonetheless, Berry's zoning remains today. Berry, interview, 5,12-13, 18-19, 38, 41-42; Carl Hanson, interview by author, 19 August 1994, transcript, 16-18, NPS.

36. Berry, interview, 21-22, 25-26, 38. The park's Mission 66 plan had included a Second Manassas driving tour, but Wilshin did not implement the tour.

37. Berry, interview, 28-30; Chief, Division of Museums, to Regional Director, SERO, 23 July 1969, Exhibit File Manassas, NPS Historic Photographic Collection.

38. Berry, interview, 22-25. Berry recalled the man also donated his great grandfather's uniform. Museum records for this donation, however, indicate no uniform items.

39. Ibid., 39.

1. "Hearing Will Examine Effect urn Battlefield," arid Kevin Murphy, "Congress Delegation Visits Manassas Battlefield Park," both in Journal Messenger (Manassas), 30 March 1973; House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, General and Oversight Briefing Relating to Developments Near Manassas National Battlefield Park: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on National Parks and Recreation, 93d Cong., 1st sess., 3 April 1973, 2-3.

2. House Committee, General and Oversight Briefing, 2-3, 8-9.

3. Ibid., 3.

4. Ron Shaffer, "America' Buildings Approved," Washington Post, 9 March 1973; Herbert H. Denton and Ron Shaffer, "Pr. William Planners Back Marriott Park," Washington Post, 4 April 1973; Prince William County Planning Commission, Staff Report, Rezoning Case #73-18, "Marriott's Great America and Industrial Park," 16 March 1973,55-59, A. Snyder Files, MNBP.

5. House Committee, General and Oversight Briefing, 3, 8; Berry, interview, 42-17; Ron Shaffer, "Amusement Park Site Set at Manassas, Washington Post, 15 February 1973.

6. "Prince William Promises Sewage Capacity by 1975 for $35 Million Marriott Park," Prince William County, Virginia Newsletter, 17 February 1973, 1, Virginiana Room, Bull Run Library, Manassas, Va.; House Committee, General and Oversight Briefing, 39-40.

7. House Committee, General and Oversight Briefing, 91.

8. Ibid., 103, 106; Snyder, interview, 37.

9. House Committee, General and Oversight Briefing, 100-106; Snyder, interview, 37.

10. Harlan D. Unrau, Administrative History: Gettysburg National Military Park and Gettysburg National Cemetery, Pennsylvania (Washington, D.C.: National Park Service, July 1991), 316. The Gettysburg Tower became a subject of discussion during the 3 April 1973 congressional hearing. See House Committee, General and Oversight Briefing 24, 50-51. For Porter's concerns, see House Committee, General and Oversight Briefing 100-103.

11. Berry, interview, 43, 46; House Committee, General and Oversight Briefing 48, 59-60.

12. Prince William County, Virginia Newsletter, Virginians Room, Bull Run Library, Manassas, Va.; Don Wilson, PWC Public Library System, conversation with author, 15 December 1993; Bennie Scarton Jr., "Marriott Official Turns Aside "Parade of Horrors,' "Journal Messenger (Manassas), 4 April 1973; Berry, interview, 46.

13. Francis F. Wilshin, "Historical Evaluation of the Proposed Marriott Tract upon Manassas National Battlefield Park," 28 March 1973, file Marriott/Battlefield, A. Snyder Files, MNBP.

14. House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, National Outdoor Recreation Programs and Policies: Hearings Before the Subcommittee on National Parks and Recreation, 93d Cong., 1st sess., March 1973, 338; House Committee, General and Oversight Briefing 61, 69; Hanson, "Report on Proposed Boundaries and Areas," 27-28, 34, 38.

15. An Art to Authorize the Addition of Certain Lands to Manassas National Battlefield Park, Virginia, and for Other Purposes (81st Cong., 1st sess., 1949, H.R. 3297), introduced by Rep. Howard W. Smith, included lands within a two-mile radius of the 29-211 and 234 intersection in the middle of tIme battlefield park. Stuart's Hill lies about 2.5 miles from this intersection. House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Providing for Increases in Appropriation Ceilings and Boundary Changes in Certain Units of the National Park System, and for Other Purposes, 92d Cong., 1st sess., 1971, S. Rpt. 92-452; John G. Parsons, interview by author, 14 June 1994, transcript, 5-6, NPS.

16. Berry, interview, 46.

17. "It's Official" Journal Messenger (Manassas), 16 February 1973; Hoffman, interview, 8.

18. On the Hetch Hereby debate, see Alfred Runte, National Parks: The American Experience, 2d ed., rev. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1987), 78-81. Throughout his book, Runte also provides examples of the role politics has played in shaping park policies. For another focused treatment on park politics, see Michael Frome, Regreening the National Parks (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1992).

19. House Committee, National Outdoor Recreation Programs, 334.

20. Ibid., 349-50.

21. Ibid., 1-2.

22. Ibid., 2-47, 69-85,94, 103-14.

23. Ibid., 59-61, 113.

24. Berry, interview, 47-49

25. Hoffman, interview, 1-4, 7-8, 20; Charles Shedd to Richard Hoffman, 14 August 1973, "Reports on Recent Visits and Marriott Meeting," Marriott Tract binder, MNBP.

26. Prince William County, Virginia, Newsletter, 2 March 1973, 1-3.

27. Prince William County Planning Commission, "Marriott's Great America"; "Positive Attitude Is Warranted," Journal Messenger (Manassas), 16 March 1973; Denton and Shaffer, "Pr. William Planners Back Marriott Park"; Prince William County, Virginia, Newsletter 6 April 1973, 1-2.

28. Denton and Shaffer, "Pr. William Planners Back Marriott Park"; House Committee, General and Oversight Briefing 13.

29. Prince William County, Virginia, Newsletter, 6 April 1973, 1-2.

30. Prince William County, Virginia, Newsletter; 6 April 1973, 1. Echoing the concern about social changes in the county, Supervisor A. J. Ferlazzo commented in the 5 April board meeting that "maybe I won't have these thirteen-year old girls in my office, pregnant and with VD" if Marriott provided a recreational alternative.

31. Prince William County, Virginia, Newsletter, 6 April 1973, 2; Randi Deiotte, "Board Invites Marriott to Refile," Journal Messenger (Manassas), 1 7 January 1974.

32. Deiotte, "Board Invites Marriott to Refile." In April 1977 Prince William Circuit Court Judge Arthur Sinclair ruled in favor of the lawsuit filed by the Prince William League for the Protection of Natural Resources and found that the county had failed to advertise tIme Marriott rezoning request meeting for the required number of days. This ruling came after Marriott had all but abandoned the Prince William site. See Prince William League for the Protection of Natural Resources, Newsletter, May 1977, A. Snyder Files, MNBP.

33. Lee Flor, "Marriott Park Delayed to 1978," Washington Star-News, 7 October 1974; Ann Holiday and Marilyn Finley, "Marriott's Great Park," Potomac News (Woodbridge), 9 October 1974; "Authority to Review Marriott," Journal Messenger (Manassas), 4 November 1974; Joan Mower, "Marriott Plans Hit Snag," Journal Messenger, 16 December 1974; "Industrial Interchange Is Planned," Journal Messenger, 5 June 1974; "Access Road Studied," Potomac News, 28 June 1974; Randi Deiotte, "No One Remains to Pay for Marriott's Ramps," Journal Messenger, 20 November 1974; "I-66 Interchange Okayed Without State Funding," Potomac News, 20 November 1974; Randi Deiotte, "Marriott's Theme Park on Back Burner," Manassas Messenger, 13 May 1976.

34. Flor, "Marriott Park Delayed to 1978"; Deiotte, "Theme Park on Back Burner.

1. Bruce Gaston to Roy Taylor, 31 March 1973,1, file Catton Letter, A. Snyder Files, MNBP.

2. Francis F. Wilshin, Edwin C. Bearss, and Michael Tennent, all Park Service historians, argued for the historical significance of the Marriott tract during the 1970s. See Wilshin, "Historical Evaluation of the Proposed Marriott Tract upon Manassas National Battlefield Park," 28 March 1973, and Tennent, "A Brief Summary of the Historical Significance of the Marriott Property," 10 December 1976, both in file Marriott/Battlefield, A. Snyder Files, MNBP; Bearss, Manassas NBP and the Proposed Marriott Park," 28 March 1973, file Manassas Correspondence 1962-72, 73-74, NPS History Division Files.

3. Richard Leigh, "County Denies Barring 1980 Marriott Expansion," Journal Messenger (Manassas), 28 July 1988; Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, Manassas Battlefield and Historic Sites: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Parks and Recreation, 95th Cong., 1st sess., 28June 1977, 197-99.

4. Hoffman, interview, 39-43.

5. Ibid., 8-9.

6. Ibid., 9-10; House Committee on Veterans" Affairs, Proposed Establishment of a National Cemetery Adjacent to Manassas Battlefield, Virginia: Hearing Before the House Subcommittee on Hospitals on H.R. 8818 and Related Bills, 91st Cong., 1st sess., 23 September 1969, 2525-26.

7. Hoffman, interview, 10; Snyder, interview, 52-53.

8. Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Providing for Increases in Appropriation Ceilings and Boundary Changes in Certain Units of the National Park System, and for Other Purposes, 92d cong., 1st sess., 1971, S. Rpt. 452, 1; Parsons, interview, 5-6.

9. Parsons, interview, 6-7.

10. Ibid., 8; Congressional Record, 92d Cong., 2d sess., 1972, 118, pt. 10:12404; Bearss, Manassas NBP and Marriott Park," 1.

11. Snyder, interview, 53.

12. Biographical Directory of Congress; Herbert E. Harris III, interview by author, 16 June 1994, transcript, 1-3, NPS.

13. Snyder, interview, 53-54; Harris, interview, 4.

14. "Rep. Harris Proposes Expanding Battlefield," Potomac News (Woodbridge), 25 June 1975; Harris, interview, 9-10.

15. Harris, interview, 16.

16. Ibid., 12; Senate Committee, Manassas Battlefield and Historic Sites, 183-84.

17. House Committee on Veterans' Affairs, National Cemetery Site Selection, Pennsylvania, and the Vicinity of the District of Columbia: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Cemeteries and Burial Bene fits, 94th Cong., 1st sess., 17 November 1975, 1146-49.

18. W. W. Lyons to Richard Roudebush, [September 1975?], file Cemetery at MNBP. A. Snyder Files, MNBP.

19. House Committee, National Cemetery Site Selection, 1149; House Committee on Veterans" Affairs, Bills Related to the National Cemetery System and to Burial Benefits: Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Cemeteries and Burial Benefits, 94th Cong., 1st sess., December 1975, January and February 1976, 1274.

20. Gilbert LeKander to Herb Harris, 4 April 1975, file Battlefield/ Marriott, A. Snyder Files, MNBP; Harris, interview, 4-5; House Committee, Bills Related to the National Cemetery System, 1233-34.

21. House Committee, Bills Related to the National Cemetery System, 1229-41.

22. Harris, interview, 17-21.

23. Hoffman, interview, 37; Betty Curran, "Varnado's Future Reveres Past," Journal Messenger (Manassas), 18 November 1977, 5. Varnado declined the author's requests for an interview.

24. Senate Committee, Manassas Battlefield and Historic Sites, 184, 186, 188.

25. Ibid., 184.

26. Hoffman, interview, 28-29; Senate Committee, Manassas Battlefield and Historic Sites, 23, 184, 198, 211-14.

27. Senate Committee, Manassas Battlefield and Historic Sites, 206-9.

28. Ibid., 3, 23, 186, 198, 206, 209.

29. Ibid., 23, 185, 211-12.

30. Ibid., 22, 222, 227, 234.

31. Ibid., 21, 198, 203, 239, 249.

32. Senate Committee, Manassas Battlefield and Historic Sites, 228, 234; Alice Humphries to Paul Trible, 18 May 1977, attached to 10 May 1977 Prince William Board of County Supervisors voting result on "Expansion-Manassas Battlefield Park," file Expansion Bill, A. Snyder Files, MNBP; Tennent, "Historical Significance of the Marriott Property." Prince William County supervisors correctly gauged the National Park Service's unwillingness to give up the Marriott tract, as proven by the 1988 publication of NPS director-designate William Whalen's 23 June 1977 internal memo, which urged that Harris's bill incorporate the Marriott tract. See Leigh, "County Denies Barring 1980 Marriott Expansion."

33. Harris, interview, 12-14.

34. Harris stated in the 3 September 1980 Senate hearing that his bills had not passed the Senate before because "we didn't have a man with the leadership of Senator Warner" (56). Harris, interview, 14-15; Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, Manassas National Battlefield Park, Virginia; and Miscellaneous Hawaii Park Proposals: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Parks, Recreation, and Renewable Resources, 96th Cong., 2d sess., 3 September 1980, 50, 52.

35. Senate Committee, Manassas National Battlefield Park, Virginia, 52, 61 -68, 75; John T. Hazel, interview by author, 17 November 1994, transcript, 3, NPS; Kathleen K. Seefeldt, interview by author, 21 November 1994, transcript, 3, NPS.

36. Public Law 96-442, 96th Cong., 2d sess., 13 October 1980, An Act to Amend the Act Entitled "An Act to Preserve Within Manassas National Battlefield Park, Virginia, the Most Important Historic Properties Relating to the Battle of Manassas, and for Other Purposes," approved April 17, 1954; Regional Director, National Capital Region, to Superintendent, Manassas Battlefield Park, 9 January 1981, "Activation of Public Law 96-442 Expanding Manassas Battlefield Park," 4, file Land Acquisition Plan-MANA, NCR Land Use Files; Senate Committee, Manassas National Battlefield Park, Virginia, 52-53,70.

37. Rolland K. Swain, interview by author, 6 April 1994, transcript, 1 - 3, NPS; Rolland R. Swain, "Superintendent's Annual Report," 1980, 1, box MANA, NPS History Collection, HFC.

38. Dean Owen, "Government Shelves Manassas Battlefield Park Expansion Plans," Potomac News (Woodbridge), 21 May 1981; Swain, interview, 14-16.

39. National Park Service, "General Management Plan, Manassas National Battlefield Park," September 1983, 26-27, Historian's Files, MNBP.

40. "Emergency Land Acquisition, Tract 02-166, Manassas National Battlefield Park" 27 July 1984, file Davis, Walker, Headquarters Files, MNBP.

41. "Emergency Land Acquisition"; Swain, interview, 28. There are no known battle trenches or military earthworks on the Brawner Farm tract.

42. "Emergency Land Acquisition"; Richard Robbins to Edwin Meese, 16 May 1985; Robbins to Regional Director, National Capital Region, 10 April 1986; Gale Norton to Assistant Secretary for Fish and Wildlife, 25 June 1986; and Robbins to Herbert Rothenberg. 7 April 1987, last four documents in file Davis, Walker, Headquarters Files, MNBP; Mary Ellen Colandene, Manassas Battlefield Park Acquires 312.5-Acre Tract," Journal Messenger (Manassas), 22 May 1985; Philip Hanyok, "Park Service Takes Title of Civil War Battle Site," Potomac News (Woodbridge), 22 May 1985; Robert Kurek, "Family Wins Decision in Brawner Farm Case," Journal Messenger, 3 March 1987; Rocky Hopchas, "Court Rules Family Must Wait "Journal Messenger, 24 June 1987; Senate Committee, Manassas Battlefield and Historic Sites, 21.

1. "Remarks by William Penn Mott Jr., National Park Service, for 125th Anniversary of First Battle of Manassas, July 19, 1986," 5, Jerry Rogers Files, NPS History Division Files.

2. Swain, "Superintendent's Annual Report," 1980, 1-2; Swain, interview, 19-20.

3. Swain, "Superintendent's Annual Report," 1980, 2; Swain, interview, 20-21. Financial benefits from the rehabilitated display area remain evident today. Gross sales for 1994 topped $250,000.

4. Swain, interview, 20; Swain, "Superintendent's Annual Report," 1980, 2.

5. Swain, "Superintendent's Annual Report" 1980, 2.

6. Rolland R. Swain, "Superintendent's Annual Report," 1982, 2, box MANA, NPS History Collection, HFC; Joseph Mitchell to Russell Dickenson, 16 September 1982, file Manassas Battlefield, Bruce Craig Files, National Parks and Conservation Association (NPCA).

7. Alan Kent to Manager, Harpers Ferry Center, 30 August 1982, "Trip Report-Manassas (August 26)," unlabeled folder, NPS History Division Files.

8. Alan Kent to Manager, Harpers Ferry Center, 30 August 1982; Edwin C. Bearss to Audio visual Production Officer, Division of Audiovisual Arts, Harpers Ferry Center, 7 September 1983, "Review of Henry Hill Tour Scripts, Manassas National Battlefield Park," and attached script, unlabeled folder, NPS History Division Files.

9. Jerry Rogers to Regional Director, National Capital Region, 7 January 1985, 1, unlabeled folder, NPS History Division Files; Bearss, interview, 17.

10. Jerry Rogers to Regional Director, National Capital Region, 7 January 1985, 1; [Rolland R. Swain], "Superintendent's Annual Report," 1985, 2, box MANA, NPS History Collection, HFC; Swain, interview, 19; Andrus to Paerce, 12 March 1984, unlabeled folder, NPS History Division Files.

11. Edwin C. Bearss to Associate Director, Cultural Resources, 12 October 1983, "Field Trip to Manassas National Battlefield Park," 3, unlabeled folder, NPS History Division Files; Swain, interview, 19; [Rolland R. Swain], "Superintendent's Annual Report," 1986, 4, Reading File 1987, MNBP.

12. Susan Moore, interview by author, 10 May 1994, transcript, 36, NPS; [Swain], "Superintendent's Annual Report," 1985; [Swain], "Superintendent's Annual Report," 1986; [Edmund Raus], "Superintendent's Annual Report," 1988, 5, box MANA, NPS History Collection, HFC; Edmund Raus, letter to author, 14 March 1995.

13. Rolland Swain to Regional Director, National Capital Region, 2 September 1987, 2, Reading File 1987, MNBP; [Swain], "Superintendent's Annual Report," 1986, 3; American Civil War Commemorative Committee, "The Battle of Manassas," 125th Anniversary Re-Enactment brochure, 1986; Friends of Virginia Civil War Parks, Inc., "Official Program for the Commemoration of the 125th Anniversary First Battle of Manassas (Bull Ruin)," 1986; Edmund Raus to Staff, 27 July 1987, "125th Anniversary of Second Manassas, last three documents in file Park Special Events, Historian's Files, MNBP. Hennessy went on to publish narrative studies of both Manassas battles.

14. "Remarks by William Penn Mott Jr.," 1-3.

15. Ibid., 3-5.

16. Joel Garreau, "Solving the Equation for Success," Washington Post, 20 June 1988.

17. National Capital Planning Commission, "William Center, Gainesville Magisterial District, Route 29, Pageland Lane, I-66 and Groveton Road, Prince William County, Virginia, Application for Rezoning from A-1, Agricultural to PMD Planned Mixed-Use District (application no. 86-61), Executive Director's Recommendation," 25 September 1986, 1, file Manassas Battlefield, Bruce Craig Files, NPCA; Garreau, Edge City, 376.

18. Garreau, Edge City, 375-77.

19. Seefeldt, interview, 14; Rolland Swain to Deputy Regional Director, National Capital Region, 19 November 1986, "Summary of Park Actions on Rezoning Application #86-61 for William Center," Reading File 1986, MNBP.

20. Seefeldt, interview, 14-15; Rolland Swain to Deputy Regional Director, National Capital Region, 19 November 1986; Lee Hockstader, "Hazel Proposes Prince William Project," Washington Post, 10 May 1986; William Penn Mott to Alan Cranston, 8 October 1987, 2, Congressionals Binder (2), MNBP.

21. Hockstader, "Hazel Proposes."

22. Ibid.

23. Swain, interview, 24, 33; Rolland Swain to William Stark, 13 January 1987, 1, and Rolland Swain to Jerry Russell, 21 January 1987, both in Reading File 1987, MNBP.

24. Swain, interview, 24-26.

25. Ibid.; Rolland Swain to Regional Director, National Capital Region, 22 April 1986, "'Weekly' Report, 3/7/86 to 4/22/86," 2, Reading File 1986, MNBP.

26. Swain, interview, 33; Hazel, interview, 3, 5; Dale Bumpers, interview by author, 7 December 1994, transcript, 4, NPS; William Penn Mott to Alan Cranston, 8 October 1987, 2; Rolland Swain to Jerry Russell, 21 January 1987.

27. Rolland Swain to Edwin King, 12 November 1986, Jerry Rogers Files, NPS History Division Files; Rolland Swain to Deputy Regional Director, National Capital Region, 19 November 1986; Swain, interview, 33.

28. Rolland Swain to Edwin King, 12 November 1986; Rolland Swain to Deputy Regional Director, National Capital Region, 19 November 1986.

29. Richard H. Hefter, "Swain Did the Best He Could," Journal Messenger (Manassas), 27 May 1987; "Proffer, William Center," revised 2 September 1986, Rezoning File no. 86-61, and "Proffer, William Center," revised 4 November 1986, Rezoning File no. 86-61, both in file Manassas Battlefield, Bruce Craig Files, NPCA; Snyder, interview, 44.

30. Rolland Swain to Deputy Regional Director, National Capital Region, 19 November 1986, 2; Rolland Swain to Regional Director, National Capital Region, 20 March 1988, 2, Jerry Rogers Files, NPS History Division Files; Swain, interview, 34; Seefeldt, interview, 17; Swain to Jerry Russell, 21 January 1987; Anne D. Snyder, address at public rally, 5 February 1988, 2, A. Snyder Files, MNBP.

31. "CWRT Associates Membership Memo," November 1986, 14, Historian's Files, MNBP; Russell, interview, 3, 10; Bruce Craig, interview by author, 16 May 1994, transcript, 35-37, NPS; Rolland Swain to William Stark, 13 January 1987.

32. Moore, interview, 15-16; Bearss, interview, 26; William Penn Mott to Alan Cranston, 8 October 1987; Edwin C. Bearss to Jerry Russell, 31 December 1986, file H42: Manassas, NCR Land Use Files. One resident sent a letter to the local paper also defending Swain's commitment to preservation. See Hefter, "Swain Did the Best He Could."

33. Bearss, interview, 26; Moore, interview, 3-4; Russell, interview, 14-15.

34. Mike Radigan, "Battlefield Park Used for Dump," Journal Messenger (Manassas), 4 June 1986; Hanson, interview, 26-28. After the dumping incident, it was suggested that the depressions on the side of Henry Hill may have been man-made dating to the Civil War.

35. Rolland Swain to Regional Director, National Capital Region, 20 November 1986, 1, Reading File 1986, MNBP.

36. Swain, interview, 30; Jack Fish to William Warner, 12 November 1987, file MANA: Rt. 29/234 Intersection, NCR Land Use Files; Rolland Swain to David Ogle, 5 May 1987, and Swain to Regional Director, National Capital Region, 7 May 1987, both in Reading File 1987, MNBP.

1. Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, Manassas National Battlefield Park Amendments of 1988: Hearing Before the Senate Subcommittee on Public Lands, National Parks and Forests on H.R. 4526, 100th Cong., 2d sess., 8 September 1988, 49.

2. Moore, interview, 11, 15; Swain, interview, 35.

3. Cornelius F. Foote Jr. and John F. Harris, "Huge Mall Planned at Manassas," Washington Post, 29 January 1988; Edward T. Hearn, "Reactions Mixed to New Mall," Suburban Virginia Times Manassas, 3 February 1988; GA/Partners Incorporated, "Summary: The William Center Non Residential Program: Benefits to Prince William County," January 1988, Apschnikat Office Files, MNBP.

4. Foote and Harris, "Huge Mall Planned"; Hearn, "Reaction Mixed."

5. Swain, interview, 36; Planned Mixed-Use District regulations, approved by the Board of County Supervisors on 15 April 1986, 3, file Manassas Battlefield, Bruce Craig Files, NPCA; Hazel, interview, 4; Anne D. Snyder, Save the Battlefield Committee promotional letter, 8 February 1988, A. Snyder Files, MNBP; Craig, interview, 39; William Penn Mott to Kathleen K. Seefeldt, 5 February 1988, Congressionals Binder (2), MNBP.

6. [Rolland R. Swain], "Briefing Statement," 19 February 1988; and Jerry L. Rogers, untitled and undated statement on the William Center mall proposal, [1988], both in Jerry Rogers Files, NPS History Division Files; Senate Committee, Manassas National Battlefield Park Amendments of 1988, 209; Hazel, interview, 9.

7. Foote and Harris, "Huge Mall Planned"; John Owens, "Resident Offers Suggestion." letter to the editor, Journal Messenger (Manassas), 27 February 1988.

8. William Penn Mott to Kathleen K. Seefeldt, 5 February 1988.

9. Kathleen K. Seefeldt to William Penn Moss, 19 February 1988, file Manassas Battlefield, Bruce Craig Files, NPCA.

10. Seefeldt, interview, 6, 8.

11. Kathleen K. Seefeldt to William Penn Mott, 19 February 1988, 2; Snyder, address at public rally. 5 February 1988; Anne D. Snyder, letter to the editor, Journal Messenger (Manassas), 5 February 1988; Seefeldt, interview, 6.

12. Snyder, interview, 43; Anne Snyder to Judy Summers, 12 February 1988, A. Snyder Files, MNBP; Snyder, address as public rally, 5 February 1988; Swain, interview, 36.

13. Snyder, interview, 9-10, 15, 19, 28-30; Anne Snyder to Judy Summers, 12 February 1988; Russell, interview, 11.

14. Save the Battlefield Coalition, Minutes, 13 February 1988, A. Snyder Files, MNBP; Harold Himmelman to Charles Williams, 17 June 1988, Manassas National Battlefield Park," and attachments, and Shea & Gardner to Donald Hodel, 4 April 1988, both in file Manassas Battle field, Bruce Craig Files, NPCA; Craig, interview, 12.

15. Philomena Hefter to Destry Jarvis, 30 January 1988, 2; Bruce Craig, "Issue Paper, Issue: Proposed William Center Mall on Lands Adjacent to Manassas National Battlefield Park," 29 February 1988; Tersh Boasberg to Anne Snyder, 25 February 1988, all in file Manassas Battlefield, Bruce Craig Files, NPCA; Craig, interview, 2, 8-10; Save the Battlefield Coalition, Minutes, 13 February 1988; National Heritage Coalition, "Statement of Purpose" and attachments, 19 May 1988, Jerry Rogers Files, NPS History Division Files; Swain, interview, 36.

16. Anne Snyder to Jody Powell, 20 February 1988, A. Snyder Files, MNBP; Jody Powell, interview by author, 18 October 1994, transcript, 2-5, NPS.

17. Snyder, interview, 22; Swain, interview, 36-37.

18. See Chapters 5 and 6 for a discussion of the historical significance of Stuart's Hill and the National Park Service's attempts to acquire the land for the battlefield park. James A. Schaefer, William Center: Second Manassas (Hazel/Peterson Companies, August 1987). Hazel/Peterson proffered to have both a historical and an archaeological study on Stuart's Hill completed. Dr. Thomas W. Ray completed a historical land survey and Karell Archaeological Services conducted the archaeological work; these studies reinforced Schaefer's original findings. "Proffer, William Center," revised 4 November 1986, Rezoning File no. 86-61, 9, file Manassas Battlefield, Bruce Craig Files, NPCA; Anne D. Snyder, letter to the editor, draft, 1 April 1988, A. Snyder Files, MNBP; John J. Hennessy, Return to Bull Run: The Campaign and Battle of Second Manassas (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993).

19. Lee Hockstader, "Annie Gets Her Gun for Prince William," Washington Post, 24 October 1984; Snyder, interview, 13.

20. Hockstader, "Annie Gets Her Gun"; Snyder, interview, 13.

21. National Park Service, Manassas Battlefield William Center Shopping Mall Action Plan," 4 April 1988; Donald Hodel to Kathleen K. Seefeldt, 4 April 1988; Hodel to James Burnley, 4 April 1988; Hodel to Gerald Baliles, 4 April 1988; William Penn Mott to Hodel, 18 April 1988, Manassas Battlefield and the William Center Rezoning all in Jerry Rogers Files, NPS History Division Files; [Susan Moore], "The 'Third' Battle of Manassas: A Case Study on External Threats to Park," n.d., 7-8, Historian's Files, MNBP; Parsons, interview, 10-11; Bearss, interview, 20.

22. National Park Service, "Shopping Mall Action Plan"; Donald Hodel to Kathleen K. Seefeldt, 4 April 1988; Hodel to James Burnley, 4 April 1988; Hodel to Gerald Baliles, 4 April 1988; William Penn Mott to Hodel, 18 April 1988; [Moore], "Case Study," 7-8; Parsons, interview, 10-11.

23. National Park Service press conference, 28 April 1988, video, Historian's Files, MNBP; [Moore], "Case Study," 7-8; Richard Leigh, "Pact Would Close Va. 234, US 29," Journal Messenger (Manassas), 29 April 1988; John F. Harris, "Compromise Offered on William Mall," Washington Post, 30 April 1988.

24. [Moore], "Case Study," 8-9; Leigh, "Pact Would Close"; Hazel, interview, 7; Parsons, interview, 11; Swain, interview, 44.

25. [Moore], "Case Study," 8; Save the Battlefield Coalition press conference, 19 May 1988, video, Historian's Files, MNBP.

26. (Moore], "Case Study," 9; Harris, "Compromise Offered"; Save the Battlefield Coalition press conference, 19 May 1988.

27. Michael Andrews, interview by author, 1 November 1994, transcript, 2-3, NPS; Kathy Kiely, "Houston Congressman Fights to Save Civil War Battlefield," Houston Post, 30 May 1988.

28. Andrews, interview, 4-6; Kiely, "Houston Congressman Fights."

29. [Moore], "Case Study," 10; Kiely, "Houston Congressman Fights"; Tim Wendel, "De Bartolo Mall Plan Battles Civil War Site," San Francisco Examiner, 1 May 1988; "Mrazek Amendment Seeks Halt of Manassas Mall," congressional office press release, 28 April 1988, file Manassas Battlefield, Bruce Craig Files, NPCA.

30. House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Providing for the Addition of Approximately 600 Acres to the Manassas National Battlefield Park, 100th Cong., 2d sess., 1988, H. Rpt. 100-809, pts. 1,5; [Moore], "Case Study," 10-11; Andrews, interview, 10-11

31. [Moore], "Case Study," 10.

32. Craig, interview, 16; [Moore], "Case Study," 10-11; Senate Committee, Manassas National Battlefield Park Amendments of 1988, 22; Fitz to Denny, 6 September 1988, Manassas Questions and Answers," 4, Jerry Rogers Files, NPS History Division Files.

33. Don Hodel, "A Political Battle over Bull Run," Houston Chronicle, 27 May 1988; editorial, "Battlefield Is the Issue, Not Partisan Politics," Spokane Chronicle, 11 July 1988; John F. Harris, Hodel Turns Celebrity Columnist, Offering Opinion on Manassas Mall," Washington Post, 14 July 1988; Don Hodel, "Playing Politics' with a Civil War Landmark," Newsday, 9 June 1988.

34. Hazel, interview, 11, 13; Hodel, "Political Battle over Bull Run."

35. Hodel, "Political Battle over Bull Run."

36. "Celebrate America's Heritage Rally, July 16, 1988, Calendar of Events," file Manassas Battlefield, Bruce Craig Files, NPCA; editorial, "Paying Tribute to the Forgotten," Journal Messenger (Manassas), 21 July 1988; Jared D. Cohen, "The Third Battle of Manassas (Bull Run): The Grass Roots Civil War That Safeguarded America's Heritage" (master's thesis, American University, August 1991), 47-48.

37. Cohen, "Grass Roots Civil War," 39; editorial, "Paying Tribute"; Anne D. Snyder, "Radio Release," May 1988, A. Snyder Files, MNBP; "Celebrate America's Heritage Rally, Calendar of Events," 3.

38. Senate Committee, Manassas National Battlefield Park Amendments of 1988, 17 - 20; Richard Leigh, "Warner and Trible Split on Battlefield Measure," Journal Messenger (Manassas), 9 September 1988; Richard Leigh, "Senate Panel OKs Mall Bill," Journal Messenger, 16 September 1988; Cohen, "Grass Roots Civil War," 47.

39. Cohen, "Grass Roots Civil War," 47; [Moore], "Case Study," 11.

40. Senate Committee, Manassas National Battlefield Park Amendments of 1988, 4-10.

41. Bumpers, interview, 8, 15-16; Senate Committee, Manassas National Battlefield Park Amendments of 1988, 4-10.

42. Senate Committee, Manassas National Battlefield Park Amendments of 1988, 60-63.

43. Ibid., 116-19, 204-11.

44. Ibid., 166-69.

45. Ibid., 148, 155.

46. Ibid., 159-61; ibid., 2-3; Leigh, "Senate Panel OKs Mall Bill."

47. Bumpers. interview, 8-11; Craig, interview, 33; Garreau, Edge City, 416-17.

48. Garreau, Edge City, 417-19.

49. Ibid., 419-20; Andrews, interview, 12; [Moore], "Case Study," 12; Public Law 100-647, 100th Cong., 2d sess., 10 November 1988, An Act to Make Technical Corrections Relating to the Tax Reform Act of 1986, and for Other Purposes.

50. Powell, interview, 3-4. Wolf's proposal to rise a legislative taking proved crucial for giving the government a vehicle for taking immediate control of the land. Also, as the local Republican representative, Wolf blunted the idea that Democrats were acting hastily. Vento, as chairman of the House subcommittee on national parks, held the necessary hearings and moved the issue quickly to the House floor.

51. Craig, interview, 46; Garreau, Edge City, 421-22.

52. Moore, interview, 29; Craig, interview, 28.

53. [Moore], "Case Study," 12-13; Moore, interview, 26-27; Parsons, interview, 17.

54. [Moore], "Case Study," 13-14.

55. Ibid., 14; Moore, interview, 26; Craig, interview, 32; Andrews, interview, 18-19.

56. Hazel, interview, 19; Durley, interview, 27; Swain, interview, 38.

57. Craig, interview, 29-30; Powell, interview, 10; Bumpers, interview, 9-10. Because a legislative taking was used to acquire the William Center tract, the Department of Justice had to determine the value of the land, based on the improvements made by Hazel/Peterson and the other involved parties. The money paid came from the Department of Justice's Claims and Judgment Fund, not the Land and Water Conservation Fund.

58. Seefeldt, interview, 8.

59. Powell, interview, 7; Swain, interview, 36.

60. Craig, interview, 26-27.

61. Brian Pohanka and Donald Pfanz organized the initial meeting that led to the creation of the APCWS. I thank the anonymous reviewer of this manuscript for clarification of this meeting's origins. A. Wilson Greene, interview by author, 2 August 1994, transcript, 2-8, NPS.

62. Ibid., 6-8.

63. Kevin Carmody, "Battlefields to Receive Protection," Potomac News (Woodbridge), 16 July 1990; "Interior Secretary Lujan Names Five Members to Civil War Sites Advisory Commission," Department of Interior press release, 14 June 1991, Historian's Files, MNBP; Deborah Fists, "Interior Dept. Plans National Fundraising for CW Battlefields," Civil War News, January/February 1991; Civil War Sites Advisory Commission, "Report on the Nation's Civil War Battlefields" (Washington, D.C.: National Park Service, 1993), summary, 55.

64. Powell, interview, 10; Hazel, interview, 17-19.

1. C. Van Woodward, New Republic, 20 June 1994, as quoted in the Chronicle of Higher Education, 14 September 1994, B1; Larry Van Dyne, "Hit the Road, Mick," Washingtonian, January 1995, 58-63, 114-27.

2. Berry, interview, 18-20.

3. Hanson, interview, 4-5.

4. Hanson, interview, 35-37.

5. Kenneth E. Apschnikat interview by author, 10 August 1994, transcript, 12, NPS; William Penn Mott to John Hennessy, 18 December 1987, 3, file Manassas Horse facility, Bruce Craig Files, NPCA; Denis Ayres to Regional Director, National Capital Region, 10 November 1986, "Wheeler Barn Renovation"; Mott to Marion Wheeler, 19 February 1987; National Park Service, "Request for Technical Proposals, Horse Remount Facility as Manassas National Battlefield Park,"July 1987, 1, last three documents in file Horse Program, Historian's Files, MNBP.

6. Hennessy's comments on Mott letter, attached to William Penn Mott to John Hennessy, 18 December 1987.

7. John Hennessy to Anne Snyder, 10 January 1988, attached to letter from Jack Fish to D. French Slaughter, 17 March 1988, Congressional Binder, MNBP.

8. Edwin C. Bearss to Director, n.d. [after 11 March 1988], "Proposed Remount Facility as Manassas National Battlefield Park," 3, file Manassas National Battlefield Park, NPS History Division Files; Assistant Secretary for Fish and Wildlife and Parks to Director, National Park Service, 9 March 1988, "Wheeler Tract Remount Facility, Manassas National Battlefield Park" Jerry Rogers Files, NPS History Division Files; Jack Fish to D. French Slaughter, 17 March 1988; Bearss, interview, 31-32; Edwin C. Bearss, conversation with author, 1 May 1995.

9. Edward T. Hearn, "Park Plan Stalled," Journal Messenger (Manassas), 2 February 1988; Apschnikat interview, 13-14.

10. "Quayles Take Flak for Riding Horses as Underfunded Bull Run Battlefield," New Haven Register 7 August 1989; Kevin Carmody, "Plan for New Stable as Battlefield Moves Ahead," Potomac News (Woodbridge), 27 September 1990; Maralee Schwartz, "Quayle Pastime Puts But Under Historians's Saddle," Washington Post, n.d.; Joseph Petro to James Ridenour, 8 June 1990, Historian's Files, MNBP; "Saddle Sore," Potomac News, 12 October 1990; "Interior Secretary Lujan Says Horses Play Vital Role as Manassas Battlefield Park," Department of the Interior press release, 3 May 1991, Historian's Files, MNBP; "Stables for Quayle Planned as Manassas," National Parks 65 (March/April 1991): 11; "Quayles to Get Stables at Manassas Battlefield" Prince William Journal, March 1991, 27-28; United States Secret Service to Ridenour, 8 June 1990, file Horse Program, Historian's Files, MNBP.

11. "Stables Expansion as Manassas Defeated," National Parks 65 (September/October 1991): 14; Pamela Gould, "Battlefield Stable Construction Races On," Potomac News (Woodbridge), 8 January 1993; Jaan Vanvalkenburgh, "Death of Stable Expansion Pleases Local Park Official," Journal Messenger (Manassas), 10 February 1993; Carlos Sanchez, "Interior Chief Reins in Officials" Perks as Manassas Park," Washington Post, 10 February 1993; Roger Kennedy to Dale Bumpers, 1 March 1995, file Horse Program, Historian's Files, MNBP.

12. Peter Rummell, interview by author, 9 May 1996, transcript, 3-5, NPS.

13. Rummell, interview, 3-4,11.

14. Michelle Singletary, "Disney Sees Daily Draw of 30,000," Washington Post, 11 November 1993; John Pulley, "Disney Seeks Making Civil War 'Important,'" Journal Messenger (Manassas), 12 November 1993; Michelle Singletary and Spencer S. Hsu, "Disney Says Va. Park Will Be Serious Fun," Washington Post, 12 November 1993. Rummell, interview, 9.

15. Singletary, "Disney Sees Daily Draw"; Pulley, "Disney Seeks"; Singletary and Hsu, "Disney Says."

16. Chris Fordney, "Embattled Ground," National Parks 68 (November/December 1994): 27, 29; Singletary and Hsu, "Disney Says;" Walt Disney Company, executive summary of rezoning application for Disney's America, January 1994, 14-15, file Disney's America Project, Historian's Files, MNBP; Marcia G. Synnott, "Disney's America: Whose Patrimony, Whose Profits, Whose Past?" Public Historian 17 (fall 1995): 45. Rummell, interview, 6-7.

17. Spencer S. Hsu, "Disney Project Ruins into Concern About Traffic, Pollution," Washington Post, 12 November 1993; Disney, executive summary, 14.

18. Leigh Anne Larance, "Virginia's New Frontier," Virginia Business, February 1994,17-19; John Pulley, "PW: 'Magic Kingdom,'" Journal Messenger (Manassas), 12 November 1993.

19. Stephen C. Fehr, "A Cinderella Story-or a Bad Dream?" Washington Post, 11 November 1993; Jaan Vanvalkenburgh, "Disney Sizes Up 'Wonderful World of Prince William," Potomac News, 11 November 1993; Spencer S. Hsu and Maria E. Odum, "Disney Sees Challenge in Honest and Entertaining Past: Residents Fear Park Will Overwhelm Rural Area," Washington Post, 13 November 1993; Van Dyne, "Hit the Road, Mick," 59, 114-15; Deborah Fists, "The Disney Park Looms," Civil War 45 (June 1994), 20-21.

20. Singletary and Hsu, "Disney Says;" Courtland Milloy, "Slavery Is Not Amusing," Washington Post, 14 November 1993; Fitts, "Disney Park Looms," 19. Rummell, interview, 7-8.

21. Apschnikat interview, 24, 26-27; Powell, interview, 14; John Pulley, "Disney to Put Limit on Traffic," Journal Messenger, 20 July 1994.

22. George Frampton and Roger Kennedy to Gregory Gorgone, 8 September 1994, Rezoning Application no. 94-0011, Disney's America, Prince William County, Virginia; Superintendent, MANA to Park Staff, MANA, 1 June 1994, Disney's America Project, both in Disney's America, Historian's Files, MNBP. The ultimate success of a historic overlay district, placing scenic easements on property, remains uncertain. See Laura McKinley, An Unbroken Historical Record: Ebey's Island National Historical Reserve, Administrative History (Seattle: National Park Service, Pacific Northwest Region, 1993) for a discussion of the pros and cons of this designation as this national park site.

23. Apschnikat interview, 47; Powell, interview, 13-14. Rummell, interview, 13.

24. Apschnikat interview, 23-24; Singletary and Hsu, "Disney Says"; Roger Kennedy to Regional Director, National Capital Region, and Regional Director, Mid-Atlantic Regions, (23 May 1994], file Disney's America Project, Historian's Files, MNBP.

25. Van Dyne, "Hit the Road, Mick," 116,120; Synnott, "Disney's America," 44; Desdda Moss, "Opponents Use History as Weapon," USA Today, 2 June 1994.

26. Richard Moe, "Downside to 'Disney's America," Washington Post, 21 December 1993; Richard Moe, interview with author, 17 November 1995, 10, NPS. The National Trust regularly reported on its fights against sprawl in its newsletter Preservation News, which was recently incorporated into its magazine Historic Preservation (now simply named Preservation). In 1993 the Trust spotlighted the immediate threat of sprawl by naming the entire state of Vermont to its Eleven Most Endangered List. For a recent article outlining the effects of sprawl on communities, see Arnold Berke, "Striking Back as Sprawl," Historic Preservation 47 (September/October 1995), 54-63, 108-10, 116.

27. Moe, interview, 7. Van Dyne, "Hit the Road, Mick," 121; Moe, "Downside to 'Disney's America.'"

28. Van Dyne, "Hit the Road, Mick," 121; Moe, "Downside to 'Disney's America;'" Spencer S. Hsu, "Historians, Writers Organize Against Disney Theme Park," Washington Post, 11 May 1994.

29. Mike Fuchs, "Disney Park Faces a Mouse That Roared," Potomac News, 3 June 1994; Stephen C. Fehr and Michael D. Shear, "For Disney, Fight Takes a New Twist," Washington Post, 17 June 1994; George Will, "Disney Should Beat a Retreat on Theme Park," Chicago Sun-Times, 17 July 1994; Synnott, "Disney's America," 46-47; Van Dyne, "Hit the Road, Mick," 123-24; Bumpers, interview, 13; Peter Baker and Spencer S. Hsu, "Disney Gives Up on Haymarket Theme Park, Vows to Seek Less Controversial Site," Washington Post, 29 September 1994.

30. Seefeldt, interview, 13.

31. Otis L. Graham Jr., "Editor's Corner: Who Owns American History?" Public Historian 17 (Spring 1995): 8-11. For a detailed discussion of the Enola Gay controversy and other recent debates over the presentation of history, see Edward T. Linenthal and Tom Engelhardt, edt., History Woes: The Enola Gay and Other Battles for the American Past (New York: Metropolitan Books/Henry Holt, 1996).

32. Susan Currell examines the response of academics to Disney and Disney's America in "Transitions in the Cultural Interpretation of Disney as an American Icon" (master's thesis, University of Maryland, 1995). Singletary and Hsu, "Disney Says"; Fitts, "Disney Park Looms" 19

33. James Oliver Horton, "A House Divided: Historians Confront Disney's America," OAH Newsletter 22 (August 1994), 8. Historians debated the Disney proposal and the aftermath of the controversy in several historical venues. See, in addition to the essays in the OAH Newsletter, Viewpoints Forum, "Public History and Disney's America," AHA Perspectives, 33 (March 1995), 1, 3 - 11; and "Symposium: Disney and the Historians-Where Do We Go from Here?" Public Historian 17 (Fall 1995): 43-89.

34. James Oliver Horton, interview with author, 24 August 1996, 5, 6, 8-10, 17.

35. Rummell, interview, 15-16, 18-19.

36. Rummell, interview, 23-24. Michael D. Shear and Martha Hamilton, "Business Leaders Fear Cost of Preservationists' Victory;" Peter Baker and Spencer S. Hsu, "Disney Abandons Prince William County Site, Plans to Find Another Va. Location for Park," both in Washington Post, 29 September 1994; Liz Spayd and Paul Fahri, "Eisner Ended Disney Plan," Washington Post, 30 September 1994; Synnott, "Disney's America," 48-49; Van Dyne, "Hit the Road, Mick," 124-25.

37. Baker and Hsu, "Disney Gives Up." Rummell, interview, 24.

38. Baker and Hsu, "Disney Gives Up"; Seefeldt, interview, 13-14; Spencer S. Hsu, "Disney Task Force Report Appears Slated for Obscurity," Washington Post, 8 December 1994; D'Vera Cohn, "Pr. William Official Says Development Inevitable on Former Disney Tract," Washington Post, 30 September 1994.